OBS.-The Verb "be," when it means "exist," is not Copulative, having no Complement; e.g.:

Rachel weeping for her children, and would not be comforted, because they are not.

And many sentences of this kind:

There is no armour against fate.

THE ADVERB.

22. Adverbs may be divided into three classes: (1) Adverbs of Manner, which show How. (2) Adverbs of Time, which show When.

(3) Adverbs of Place, which show Where.

OBS. 1.-Adverbs of Manner include Adverbs of Degree or Measure; as: Much, little, very, enough, nearly, more, most, &c.

OBS. 2.-There are also:

Adverbs of Cause and Effect: Therefore, wherefore, why.

Adverb of Negation: Not.

Numeral Adverbs: Once, twice, thrice.

OBS. 3.-Adjectives are used as Adverbs; as:

Silent rows the songless gondolier.

OBS. 4.-Interrogative Adverbs are used in questions; as: How? When? Where?

THE PREPOSITION.

23. A Preposition together with its Substantive forms a Phrase.

Such Phrases are either Adjectival or Adverbial; that is, they take the place of either an Adjective or an Adverb.

ADJECTIVAL PHRASES.

A bird in-the-hand is worth two (birds) in-the-bush.

24. Here the Preposition "in" is placed before the Substantive "hand;" "in-the-hand" is an Adjectival Phrase qualifying "bird." It takes the place of an Adjective, because it distinguishes this "bird" from the other "birds.”

So also "in-the-bush" is an Adjectival Phrase qualifying "two birds."

We might almost say, "A grasped bird is worth two free birds," using the Adjectives "grasped" and "free" instead of the Adjectival Phrases "in-thehand" and "in-the-bush."

Here is another example:

A mighty man of-valour.

Mighty" is an Adjective, "of-valour" is an Adjectival Phrase, both qualifying "man."

ADVERBIAL

PHRASES.

I stood on-the-bridge at-midnight.

25. Here the Preposition "on" is placed before the Substantive "bridge;" "on-the-bridge" is an Adverbial Phrase qualifying the Verb "stood,” showing where I "stood."

So too "at-midnight" is an Adverbial Phrase qualifying "stood," showing when I "stood."

A Substantive (without Preposition) is often used Adverbially.

Ex. It rained all-night.

Here "all-night" is Adverbial, showing when or how long it rained.

THE CONJUNCTION.

26. Conjunctions are either:

Co-ordinative,

or Sub-ordinative.

27. Co-ordinative Conjunctions connect words or sentences of the same kind; as:

Two and three make five.

Dogs delight to bark and bite.

I'll meet the raging of the skies,
But not an angry father.

Man wants but little here below,
Nor wants that little long.

28. Sub-ordinative Conjunctions connect Dependent Clauses with the Principal Sentence, or with another Dependent Clause; as:

If

Make hay whilst the sun shines.

I sleep all night so sound, mother, that I shall never wake you do not call me loud, when the day begins to break. OBS. 1.-The term Conjunction implies nothing more than "joining together" two expressions. We have seen, however, that the Relative Pronouns (14) have the force of Conjunctions, besides being Pronouns. In the same way many Adverbs have the force of Conjunctions; such as when, where, whither, whence, &c. These are called Conjunctive Adverbs.

OBS. 2.-The Conjunctive Adverb "than" is used in comparisons; as:

There lies a vale in Ida, lovelier

Than all the valleys of Ionian hills.

This is a short way of saying:

There lies a vale in Ida, lovelier

Than all the valleys of Ionian hills are lovely.

So also with the Conjunctive Adverb " as:
Sempronius is as brave a man as Cato.

That is to say:

Sempronius is as brave a man as Cato is brave.

Both examples are in fact Compound Sentences shortened into Simple Sentences by the omission of the words in italics. Such words are easily supplied in any example.

THE INTERJECTION.

29. An Interjection is a word thrown in, as it were, to express some feeling; it is no part of the construction of the Sentence:

O! it was pitiful.

How slow, alas! he came.

OBS.-The Vocative Case-that is, the Case of the person or thing addressed—is reckoned as an Interjection. Stop, stop, John Gilpin! Here's the house! Drink, pretty creature, drink.

THE ARTICLES.

30. The Definite Article, the (originally that) is used, like a Demonstrative, when it is necessary to distinguish a Substantive from others with the same name; as:

The dish ran away with the spoon.

We mean a particular dish and a particular spoon.

The Indefinite Article, a, an (originally one) is used when it is not necessary to distinguish a Substantive from others of the same name; as:

A cat may look at a king.

We do not mean a particular cat or a particular king.

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

31. A Simple Sentence expresses a single thought, and contains only one Finite Verb.

A Simple Sentence is either:

A Statement; as:

Lady, by yonder blessed moon, I swear.

A Question; as:

What shall I swear by ?

Or A Command (or Request or Petition); as:
Do not swear at all.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

32. Every Simple Sentence consists of two parts: The Subject: that which is spoken about.

The Predicate: that which is said about the Subject.

Logical Analysis deals with separating a Sentence into Subject and Predicate.

33. The Subject of a Sentence may be either: (1) A Substantive.

(2) A Pronoun (standing for a Substantive).

(3) An Adjective (qualifying a Substantive understood).