characteristics of the mountain tracts on the northern border of the mass are very similar to those of the Himalaya portion, and here the mountain masses cease and are succeeded by a comparative plain at a lower level. In reality the Himalayas and Kuen Lun are nothing but borders of the same mass of elevated land, the Thian Shan being the mountain mass of the N.; but there is no such thing as a special range in the sense in which the word is commonly used."-Proceedings R.G.S., 1872.

The chief RIVERS are,—the Amoo and Sir Daria (Aral); the Tarim (made up of the Cashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, Kerya, and Harashabr), flowing into L. Lob; the Sanpo and Brahmapootra in the S.E.; the Kinsha Kiang, Hoangho and its tributary the Huangchui, the Djabekan and Ulas Kem in the N.

The LAKES include the Aral and Caspian S.; Karakul, in W. Turkestan; the Ike Namur, Bukha, Paltee, Tcharin Nor, and Tengri Nor, of Tibet; Lob Nor, Bosteng, Ike Aral, Kessel, Saisan, Oubsa and Kosgol to the N.

DIVISIONS. These are very indistinct and changing. On the W. are,-Khiva, Bokhara, Khokan, and Kundu; S. of the Altai are,-Zungaria, Kobdo, Uryankhai; E. of these, Khalkas; S. of which is the Shamo, or Gobi Desert; and N. of the Himalayas the Table-land of Thibet.

TOWNS. The chief towns are,-Bokhara, near the Amoo; Balkh and Kundu, N. of Afghanistan; Khokan and Taskend, near the Sir Daria; Yarkand and Cashgar, on the rivers of the same names; Lassa, S.E. of Tengri Nor; Urumchi and Turfan, N. and S. of the eastern end of the Thian Shan Mts.; Ourga, 300 miles S. of L. Baikal; Maimatchin, N. of this; and Karakorum to the S.W.; Kulja, in Zungaria; and Leh, capital of Ladak.

The inhabitants include travellers from Afghanistan; stoutly-built pig-tailed tea merchants, from greater Thibet; Chinamen from Yarkand; the yellow-robed Lama, from great Tibet, with his ambling mule and

portable prayer wheel; trading Haji, from Yarkand; Indian fanatics; Sikh merchants, &c., &c.

In Turkestan proper, to the W., or Independent Tartary, are the nomadic tribes of the Kirghis, in the N. and N.E.; and the wandering Usbecks or Turcomans in the S.; here the chief beast of burden is the camel, by means of which cottons, woollens, hardware and tea are imported.

The religion is Mahommedan, and the government of the Khans despotic.

In Tibet we find the Yak, the silky hair of which is used for lace; there are also very fine woolled sheep, which animal is also used as a beast of burden in the high passes.

The religion is Buddhism or Lamaism, prayers being repeated by revolving cylinders containing the written petitions.

AFGHANISTAN.

BOUNDARIES. On the N., by the Bokhara, having the Hindoo Koosh Mts. for the boundary for part of the frontier. On the S., by Beloochistan. On the E., by the Solyman Mts., and on the W., by Persia. The whole includes an area of about 224,000 sq. miles.

MOUNTAINS.-On the N. are the Hindoo Koosh, running from the Table-land of Pamir on the E. continuously to the W.,-first as the Paropamisus Mts., then as the Elburz. On the E. are the Solyman Mts. running to the N. and S., having the famous Kyber Pass (30 miles long) to the N., in which the retreating British were cut off, 1841-2; and the Gomul Pass in the centre. The country rises from the desert in the S.W. towards the Hindoo Koosh and Solyman Mts., to the N. and E.

RIVERS. These are,-the Cabool in the N.E., a tributary of the Indus, rising on the Southern flanks of the Hindoo Koosh and flowing E.; the Lara in the S., flowing W.; besides the Helmund and many others emptying themselves into L. Seistan or L. Hamoon, in the S.W.

DIVISIONS.-Herat, in the W.; Cabool, in the N.E.; Candahar in the centre and S.

TOWNS.-Cabool, in the upper valley of the river of the same name; Ghuznee, to the S.; Candahar and Herat, the capitals of the provinces of the same name; Looshak, on the E. shore of L. Seistan; Jelabad, near the Kyber Pass, gallantly defended by Sale, in 1842. GENERAL REMARKS.-The Afghans are exceedingly warlike, as was proved to our cost in 1842, when the British forces were expelled from Cabool; and at the storming by us of the fort of Ghuznee. The popula tion amounts to about 5,000,000, most of whom are nomadic, the camel, mule and ass being the beasts of burden. The religion is Mahommedan. The manufactures are chiefly confined to the towns, and consist of sword blades and silk and woollen stuffs.

BELOOCHISTAN.

BOUNDARIES. On the N., by Afghanistan. On the S., by the Arabian S. and G. of Oman, On the E., by Scinde, the Kala Mts. forming the boundary for part of the frontier. On the W., Persia. The total area is about 160,000 sq. miles, of which the N. aud the coast-line are desert.

MOUNTAINS. On the E. are the Kala Mts., running N. and S.; through the centre, running E. and W., are the Washutee Mts. The whole interior is thought to be more or less mountainous.

RIVERS. These are few and unimportant. Flowing to the S. are,-the Nagor, Sirrao, and Bunth.

DIVISIONS.—The country is divided among the two tribes of the Beloochees (like the Persians), and the Brahooee (like the Hindoos).

TOWNS.-Kelat the capital, 1,000 ft. above the sea. The geography of Hindostan, and further India, has been already given in The Pupil Teacher's Year Book year III. British Colonies.

for

The Independent or partly Dependent States include:

:

TRAVANCORE, in the S.W. of the peninsula of India, having Trevandrum for its capital.

MYSORE, in the S. of the Deccan, with a capital of the same name, near which is Seringapatam strongly fortified.

The NIZAM'S DOMINIONS lie to the N., between the Tapty and Krishna, having Hyderabad for the capital. Besides, are Aurungabad and Golconda, the latter famous for diamonds.

The GUICCWAR'S DOMINIONS form the peninsula of Guzerat-capital Baroda.

The SCINDIA'S DOMINIONS are in the valley of the Chumbul; the capital is the strong fortress and city of Gwalior.

RAJPOOTANA is the desert region E. of Scinde.

CASHMERE is a fertile valley region to the N.E. of the Punjaub, having a capital of the same name on the Jelum, 5,000 ft. above the sea, where the famous Cashmere shawls are manufactured.

NEPAUL, on the S. slopes of the Himalayas-capital Katmandoo.

BHOTAN, also on the S. of the Himalayas. but E. of Nepaul, from which it is separated by the little state of Sikkim.

BURMAH is bounded on the W. by Aracan and Assam; on the E. by China and Siam, in the basin of the Irrawady and its tributary the Kiaynduan; and contains about 4,000,000 people. The chief towns are,-Ava, the capital, near which is Amarapura, both on the Irrawady; Patanago, Yandabo, and Bhamo all on the same river. Rice is the principal article of food.

SIAM lies on the shores of the gulf of the same name and in the valley of the Meinam. The chief towns are, Bangkok, the capital, near the mouth of the Meinam; and Yuthia. Rice, sugar, and cocoa are cultivated; and gamboge and lac exported.

ANAM, along the shores of the Chinese S., having Tonquin on the N., Cambodia on the S., and Cochin

China in the centre. The chief towns are,-Huê, the capital; Tonquin, and Saigon, belonging to the French.

CHINESE EMPIRE.

BOUNDARIES.-The Chinese Empire includes China Proper, Corea, and Mantchooria on the N.E., Mongo lia on the N., and a decaying sway over the districts of Central Asia on the W.

China Proper is bounded on the N., by Mantchooria and Mongolia. On the E., by the G. of Pecheli, the Whang Hai (Yellow S.), the Tung Hai (Eastern S.), Fokien and Formosa Channels, and the China S. On the S., by Anam and Burmah; and on the W., by Tibet.

MOUNTAINS. The western frontier consists of the mountainous region fringing the E. side of the Table1 nd of Tibet, in which are the Yanling Mts.; the Peling are continued to the E., while the E. portion is generally flat.

RIVERS. The chief rivers are,-the Peiho, flowing into the G. of Pecheli; the Hoangho, flowing first to the E. from its source in the plateau of Tibet, then N., afterwards E., then S.E.; the still longer Yang-tsekiang, rising still farther W., and flowing to the S.E. and N.E., (receiving as tributaries the Min, Oo, Yuen, Heng, Han, and Kankiang); and the Chookiang or Canton R.

TOWNS.-Pekin (13 million souls) near the Peiho R.; Nankin (million souls), on the Yang-tse-Kiang; Kingti-chiang, famous for porcelain; and the free ports of Canton, Ningpo, Amoy, Hankow, Foochoo, and Shang. hai, Swatow, Tientsin and others.

GENERAL REMARKS.-The climate is extreme in the N. (cold) and S. (hot); and typhoons (rotatory whirlwinds) are destructive off the coasts. The population is so dense (414 millions) that the most has to l made of the soil, and rice, tobacco, wheat, indig cotton, flax, and sugar, are largely grown. The dom. inant race is Tartar, but Taeping rebels are devast ating scourges