(monkeys), the gavial (crocodile), the elephant, tapir, rhinoceros, &c.

RUSSIA IN ASIA.

BOUNDARIES.-Russia in Asia stretches from the Urals to the St. of Behring, or for 4,000 miles from E. to W.; and from the Arctic O. to the R. Aras on the S. side of the Caucasus Mts.; being bounded on the S. in no very determinate manner by Persia, Turkestan, Chinese Tartary, Mongolia, and the middle valley of the R. Amoor, the extreme breadth being about half the length, or 2,000 miles. The total area is one half larger than that of all Europe, or 5 million sq. miles.

The MOUNTAINS include the Urals, in the W.; the Altai, Savansk, Yablonoi, Aldan, Stanovoi, Verkhoianskoi, and Mts. of Kamschatka, in the S. and E. The rest of the country consists of terraces falling into the Arctic O.

DIVISIONS.-Its principal divisions are, -East and West Siberia and Caucasia; Siberia is further subdivided into Tobolsk, in the lower valley of the Obi; Tomsk, in the upper valley of that river; Yenisseisk, in the basin of the Yenesei; Irkutsk, in the upper valley of that river; Yakutsk, in the basin of the Lena; Okhotsk, W. of the G. of that name; Kamschatka; and the Kirghiz district, N. of the Caspian, Aral, and Balkash S.

TOWNS. The chief towns are,-Tiflis, on the R. Kur, the capital of Caucasia; Erivan, near the L. of the same name, in Caucasia; Ekaterinburg, in the Ural Mts. (a mining town); Semipolatinsk, Omsk, Tobolsk, Tomsk, and Smeinogorsk, in the valley of the Obi; Irkutsk, on the R. Angara, near L. Baikal; Yakutsk, on the R. Lena; Kiachta, and Maimatchin, the chief trading towns with China; S. of L. Baikal— Nertchinsk, a mining town near the R. Amoor; Nicolaievesk, on the mouth of the latter river; Petropaulovski, a fortified position in Kamschatka; Okhotsk, on the sea of the same name.

GENERAL REMARKS.-The population is very scattered, few, and nomadic. The Kirghis of the S.E. are divided into the Little, Great, and Middle Horde, wandering over the steppes of the Ischim, and the . Karakoom desert.

The chief productions are furs and skins (bear, glutton, lynx, fox, badger, ermine, sable, polecat, marten, elk, musk, &c.)

The mineral productions of the Ural and Altai Mts. are diamonds, gold, silver, copper, lead, platinum, malachite, and coral, employing about 150,000 people. These are transported by means of the rivers in summer, and by sledges in winter.

ASIATIC TURKEY.

BOUNDARIES.-Turkey in Asia includes Anatolia (A. Minor), the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, and Armenia. It is bounded on the N., by Transcaucasia and the Black S. On the W., by the Bosporus, S. of Marmara, Dardanelles, Egean S., Mediterranean, and Isthmus of Suez. On the S., by Arabia and the Persian G. On the E., by Persia and the Shutt-elArab. The length is about 1,400 miles, and the breadth 900 miles.

· MOUNTAINS.-These include the Taurus and Antitaurus ranges of the S. and N. sides of the Table-land of Anatolia; with Argish Tagh in the E., 13,000 ft.; Lebanon, Antilebanon, Carmel, Ebal, Gerizim, the Mts. of Judea, Abarim, Quarantana, &c., of Palestine; Mts. Horeb and Sinai, in the Peninsula of Sinai; the Arabian Heights, flanking the W. side of the Arabian Table-land; and the Mts. of Armenia.

RIVERS. These include the Yeshil Irmak, Kizil Irmak, and Sakaria, flowing N. into the Black S; the Kodus, and Mendere (Meander), flowing W. into the Egean; the Orontes, and Leontes, flowing into the Mediterranean; the Jordan, with its tributaries, emptying itself into the Dead S.; the Aras, flowing into the Caspian S.; and the Tigris and Euphrates (Shutt-el-Arab), flowing into the Persian G.

DIVISIONS.-Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Kurdistan.

TOWNS.-Smyrna (30,000), on the B. of_Smyrna, is the chief commercial city; Scutari, on the Bosporus; Brusa, S. of Scutari; and Angora, in the upper valley of the Sakaria, famous for its goats-hair; Tarsus is in the S.E. of Anatolia; and Trebizond and Sinope, on the Black S.; Jerusalem, between the Dead and Mediterranean S.; Bethlehem and Hebron, 6 and 16 miles to the S.; and Nablous (Shechem), 33 miles to the N. of it. On the Mediterranean, in Palestine, are, -Saida (Sidon), Acre, and Gaza. Damascus lies 50 miles E. of the Mediterranean; Aleppo, to the N.; with Latakia and Beirout on the Syrian shore of the Mediterranean. Besides, in Syria are the ruins of Baalbec, Antioch, and Palmyra (Tadmor), all in the N. In Armenia are,-Erzeroum and Kars. Besides are, Van, on the E. side of the lake of the same name; Mosul and Baghdad, on the Tigris; Bassorah on the Shutt-el-Arab; and Diarbekr, S.W. of L. Van

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GENERAL REMARKS.-Agriculture is in a wretched condition, many of the tribes being mere cattle-rearing nomads, and robbers. The manufactures include silk (the worms" being largely reared), Turkey leather, and fire-arms, which are exported by European merchants. Large quantities of dried fruits are also exported from Smyrna (raisins, figs, almonds, &c.): most of the internal trade being carried on by caravans of camels, the internal communications being very wretched. The religion includes Mahommedan, Christianity, and the Druse worship.

ARABIA.

BOUNDARIES.-Arabia is a peninsula, washed on the E by the Persian G. and G. of Oman. On the S., by the Arabian S. and G. of Aden. On the W., by the St. of Babel-Mandeb, and Red S. On the N. it is bounded by Turkey in Asia. The total extent is 1,200,000 sq. miles, having a length of 1,700 miles, and a breadth of 900.

MOUNTAINS.-Arabia consists of an elevated tableland, intersected by mountain chains and surrounded by low-lying lands round the coast. On the N. is the great Syrian Desert. There are consequently no rivers of any importance, the country mostly forming one of the "Rainless Districts" of the globe, the climate being one of the driest on the earth, and rendered excessive from the blasts of the Simoom.

DIVISIONS.-Yemen in the S.W.; Hadramaut in the S.; Oman in the S.E.; Lachsa in the E.; Hedjaz on the shores of the Red S., and Nedjed in the interior. Most of these are occupied by nearly independent

tribes.

TOWNS.-These are Mecca, with the port of Jidda, E. of the Red S.,—Medina to the N. of it; both the resort of Mahommedan pilgrims; Mocha in the S.W., on the Red S., from which coffee is largely exported; and Muscat a port in the S.E.

GENERAL REMARKS.-Agriculture is almost confined to the districts fringing the coast, as the interior is sandy and arid,-Oman being the most fertile district. The dourah (a kind of millet), date, coffee, castor oil and gum trees are grown. The exports are nearly limited to these productions, and pearls from the W. coast of the Persian Gulf. The religion is Mahommedan,-caravans of pilgrims annually making their hadje or pilgrimage to the holy altars of Mecca (the birthplace of Mahomet) and Medina.

PERSIA.

BOUNDARIES.-Persia is bounded on the E., by Afghanistan and Beloochistan. On the S., by the Persian G. On the W., by Asiatic Turkey, and on the N., by the R. Aras and Georgia, the Caspian and Turkestan. The area is 500,000 sq. miles.

MOUNTAINS. The country is an elevated table-land (Iran), flanked on the N.W. by barrier chains of mountains-the Elburz and Paropamisus Mts.

RIVERS.-Like Arabia, the country forms one of the

GEOGRAPHY.

"Rainless Districts," the interior being a great Salt Desert with salt lakes on it. The only rivers of any consequence are the Karoon flowing into the Gulf of Persia, and the Kizil Ouzan and Attruck emptying themselves into the Caspian.

DIVISIONS. These are not very determinate, and only the following need be noticed:-Khorassan in the N.; Yezd in the centre; Laristan in the S.; Luristan in the W.

TOWNS.-Teheran, on a desert plain S. of the Caspian; Ispahan, in a fruitful valley to the S. of the former; Bushire, a port on the Persian G.;-Shiraz to the N.E. of this; Hamadan, (Ecbatana), S.W. of Teheran; Tabreez, near L. Urumiah; and Yezd in the centre of the country.

GENERAL REMARKS.- Agriculture is carried on only to a slight extent, owing to the character of the soil and climate. The chief manufactures are silk and carpets, sword blades, and camel and goats' hair fabrics--caravans conducting the internal traffic. The religion is Mahommedan.

CENTRAL ASIA.

"What with the annual additions to our knowledge, the changes of frontier from the decay of the Chinese Empire, the progress of the Russians, and the birth of ephemeral native states between the two, the map makers have had a hard time of it."-Shaw's Central Asia in 1872.

Under Central Asia we shall include the countries N. of the Himalayas (the table-land of Thibet), of Afghanistan and Persia, viz.,-Turkestan, S. of Siberia, E. of the Caspian, and W. of Mongolia, and the Chinese Empire.

"There can be no doubt that the country from W. China to near the Caspian Sea is in reality one great protuberance above the earth's surface, broken up in a very remarkable way, but wonderfully uniform in character throughout its whole length. The general