The dredge being intended to bring up a larger quantity of the bottom soil, and so requiring to be dragged along it for some distance, is attached to a strong rope of three or three and a half inches in circumference, made of the best hemp. In shape the dredge reminds one of a common steel-rimmed purse, the rim being represented by a solid iron frame some five feet long by about eight inches wide, and the bag by a stout and very close network about five feet in depth. To add to the resemblance, instead of a solitary tassel which commonly adorns a network purse of the above description, there are six huge tassels attached to the dredge in the shape of swabs, which are made of white yarn, so that any minute creature they may entangle may be readily seen. We may explain that a swab is made by putting a quantity of rope-yarns through a ring of rope, and then tying them tightly round just below the ring, which serves as a handle. It is used commonly to dry the decks. There is an ingenious arrangement to alleviate the sudden strain which would otherwise be brought on the rope by the rolling of the ship when the dredge is in use. This consists in passing the rope over a pulley, which is slung to an apparatus suspended from the mainyard, composed of twenty-five of Hodge's patent indiarubber accumulators. These accumulators, when at rest, are about a yard in length, but will stretch to at least five times that length without detriment, and are together amply strong enough to bear the strain of heaving in the dredge. The ship being rendered stationary, the dredge is lowered, and the ship then allowed to drift for an hour or two, when it is hove in by steam machinery at the rate of about 100 fathoms in 7 minutes. We obtained our first soundings in 1,125 fathoms, and on hauling the dredge brought up a small live starfish, among other things, from the same depth." H.M.S. CHALLENGER. QUESTIONS ALREADY GIVEN IN GOVERN MENT EXAMINATIONS. 1. Write notes (see reference figures) to the following passage, in the way of explanation to a first class: "North America, the third continent of the N. (1), presents itself to us under an aspect entirely different. We are already acquainted with its structure, formed on a plan widely different from that of the North Eastern Continent (2); we know that its characteristic is simplicity (3). Add to this feature its vast areas (4), its fruitful plains (5), its numberless rivers (6), the prodigious facility for communication-nowhere impeded by serious obstacles (7)-with its oceanic position (8), and we shall see that it is made, not to give birth and growth to civilization, but to receive one ready made, and to furnish forth for man whose education the Old World has completed (9), the most magnificent theatre, the scene most worthy of his activity." 2. Give the characteristics of the country to the west of the Andes in South America. What are the mineral, animal, and vegetable productions? and what are the chief articles of commerce, and the chief ports ? 3. A short history of Brazil-its government, resources, trade, population. 4. In what part of South America are these minerals (respectively) found in abundance: gold, silver, diamonds, tin, mercury, copper, lead, iron, coal, and salt? 5. Describe the effect of the great mountain chain of the Andes on the climate of the South American continent, comparing the climates of the countries east and west of the mountains. *6 Of what countries are these towns the capitals: Buenos Ayres, Monte Video, Asuncion ? What are the chief articles of trade between Europe and these countries ? ENGLISH GRAMMAR. "The Noun, Verb, and Adjective, with their relations in a simple sentence."—Revised Code, Pupil Teacher's Schedule. INTRODUCTION.-Grammar is the science of Language, and the art of correct speaking and writing. Language is the expression of thought by means of sounds (oral language), or letters, syllables, words and sentences (written language). Grammar is accordingly divided into four parts, as it deals with these means of expression of our thoughts; Thus (1), Orthography and Orthoepy deal with letters; the former teaching correct spelling, the latter correct pronunciation. (2) Etymology deals with words, their kinds, inflexions, and derivations. (3) Syntax has to do with sentences, teaching the proper way to combine words to express our thoughts, with due attention to the way in which words agree with, govern, or are related to each other according to fixed rules in each language. (4) Lastly, Prosody deals with language in its highest form, as verse or poetry, and teaches us the rules of rhyme, rhythm, and metre. ETYMOLOGY. We have just seen that one of the provinces of Etymology is to classify the words of a language into different divisions. This we could do into what are commonly known as the Parts of Speech, which, with a brief definition, are given below. 1. The Noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. These as objects may be perceived by the senses, or they may be grasped only by the understanding, as John, London, horse; and God, heaven faith. 2. The Verb is a word which says or predicates something; speaking of being, doing, or suffering: as John exists; John struggles; John is beaten. 3. The Adjective is a word added to a noun to mark its quality, as a white horse, without asserting, as the verb does, that the quality belongs to it, as the horse is white. These are the Parts of Speech which we have now to examine. In addition are the following to be discussed in following years of apprenticeship. 4. The Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun: as John fights; he is brave. 5. The Adverb is a word which modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb. Its main use is to modify the verb, with which it is related as the adjective is to the noun: as a quick man; he runs quickly. 6. The Preposition expresses the relation between one word and another: as John is in the room, where the relation between John and the room is expressed by in. 7. The Conjunction is a word which joins words or sentences together: as three and three are six; three fight and three run away. 8. The Interjection is a word or cry expressing any sudden or violent feeling: as O! Hurrah! THE NOUN. As a noun is the name of a person, place, or thing, and we may have both particular persons, places, and things, and things which exist in classes or in common with each other, we have two kinds or classes of Nouns, Proper and Common. Thus, a Proper name is the name of an individual, particular person, place or thing: as Nero, Rome, the Pantheon." These may be taken in the plural number, as the Henries, the Miss Robinsons, &c. Common nouns are names used in common, as bird, applicable to all creatures that have feathers. There ́s no hard and fast line between a Proper and a Common noun, and we accordingly have Proper nouns that are becoming common, or may be used in the sense of a common noun. Thus, in this sentence, "Cromwell fought at Dunbar," we have the word Cromwell used as a Proper noun, as a distinct appellation or individual name; but in this sentence: "Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood," Cromwell is no longer limited to an individual, but may denote any one of a certain class. But we have said that nouns are either, as in the two preceding cases, names of objects perceived by the senses, or they may be grasped only by the understanding. The latter are called Abstract nouns and refer to states, acts, qualities or degree, as life, walking, wickedness, want. But in these cases we can have no conception of these abstractions except as belonging to the concrete objects themselves: thus life can only mean something living; walking, some object walking; wickedness, some wicked person; and want, the absence of some thing we esteem as wealth. I. PROPER. II. COMMON. TABLE OF NOUNS. Strictly Proper, as 'Henry.' Becoming Common, 'the Henries.' Agents, ‘a walker.' State-life.' Action-walking.' III. ABSTRACT. Quality-wickedness.' Quantity 'a ton.' The simple form of the noun undergoes changes called inflexions, to denote differences of NUMBER, GENDER, and CASE. |