mental in effecting useful changes in the courses of study, and in elevating the moral tone of the body of students. He constantly sought their conversion and spiritual development. Theology became a matter of the heart as well as of the head. "A grain of living faith," Francke says, "is worth more than a pound of historic knowledge; and a drop of love, than an ocean of science."

The spirit that animated Francke in his vast enterprises is well worthy of our consideration. A profound personal piety lay at the basis of all his work. He founded his institutions with a firm reliance upon God, and depended upon prayer to bring him the necessary help. He regarded piety as the most essential thing in education. He emphasized the truth that education should have reference to the student's subsequent vocation; he increased the number of utilitarian studies, and laid the foundation of modern practical education.

In the following passages Francke expresses his views fully and clearly in regard to education: "Only the truly pious man," he says, "is a good member of society. Without sincere piety all knowledge, all prudence, all worldly culture is more hurtful than useful, and we are never secure against its misuse. Although all children are not depraved to the same degree, yet all bear the seed of depravity within them; and, hence, a fundamental improvement of the heart must always be labored for. In this work we must beware of fighting against some particular faults as if they were the only ones, although many deserve especial attention. Also, we must not lose sight of the peculiarities of each character, the differences of temperament. . . . Piety agrees with all

states and conditions into which man may come, for every condition with which it does not agree becomes by this very fact unlawful. It does not exclude prudence in conduct, but this must always be subordinated to godliness."

"Youth needs pleasure and recreation. This it finds partly in physical exercise, partly in pleasant and at the same time useful employments, especially in mechanical employments; partly in the examination of new and interesting objects of nature and art. In all instruction we must keep the pupil's station and future calling in mind, but to all classes alike is piety necessary. Hence, it must remain in all schools the chief matter, the principal lesson. In the instruction of those who are destined to unprofessional employments and trades, the most important thing after religion is an acquaintance with the indispensable arts of reading, writing, and reckoning; but the elements of other branches of knowledge should not be neglected, especially the elements of natural science, geography, history, and government, which, however, are to be brought forward incidentally and later."

The following rules are taken from Francke's instructions to his teachers upon the manner of exercising school-discipline. They exhibit his clear pedagogical insight, his piety, and his sympathy and love for children :

1. In exercising discipline, which is necessary and conformable to the will of God, the teacher should pray God first of all to give him the necessary wisdom.

2. As most teachers seek to correct children by rigorous punishment rather than by gaining their love through patience, forbearance, and affection; and, as

young teachers in particular are lacking in paternal solicitude and Christian gentleness, they ought to supplicate the Lord, without ceasing, to fill them with love for the young who are confided to them, and to deliver them from all harshness and carnal sufficiency.

3. The teacher should learn to govern himself, without which he can not properly govern others.

4. A teacher should maintain discipline over his pupils, and should exhort and punish them when necessary; nevertheless, education should not be hard and severe, but gentle and paternal.

5. A teacher ought never to punish a child in anger. 6. A teacher ought not to be ill-humored, but cordial and kind, like a father.

7. Children ought not to be punished for little faults inherent in their age, but should be encouraged to be more careful.

8. A Christian teacher should beware of becoming the occasion of disorder which he is to punish.

9. Children should not be abused with harsh epithets. It is contrary to the spirit of Christianity.

10. A child ought never to be scolded because it can not understand. If it is dull of comprehension, the teacher should redouble his efforts in its behalf.

11. A teacher should study the disposition of his pupils, as delicate and gentle natures are not to be treated like coarse and hardened natures.

12. In avoiding too great severity the teacher should not fall into the opposite extreme, and become the sport of the children.

13. With youth over fifteen years of age the teacher should abstain from harsh words, threats, and blows, by

which they may become imbittered. It is better to take them separately, talk to them kindly-sometimes even pray with them. If these means are fruitless, let them be brought before the school board, or punished in the presence of a colleague.

Francke's long and useful life was crowned with a fitting close. He bore his last sickness with Christian resignation. The words of the patriarch Jacob were often upon his lips, "Lord, I wait for thy salvation." At the last hour his wife, the faithful companion of many years, stood by his side. "The Saviour will be with you," she said. "There is no doubt of it," he replied. These were his last words; and, in the midst of the hymns and prayers of assembled friends, he peacefully fell asleep June 8, 1727.

6. ABSTRACT HUMAN EDUCATION.

The eighteenth century witnessed a new movement which has been characterized as abstract human education.* In general, it ignores or rejects revealed religion, and bases its educational principles on the purely natural. Though as one-sided as the theological tendency, it has the great merit of stimulating a careful study of man in the interests of correct educational methods. In this way it rendered invaluable service to the cause of educational progress.

This movement exhibited two entirely different tendencies - the realistic tendency, which emphasized the study of Nature, and the humanistic tendency, which

*The German expression is "abstract menschliche Erziehung."

emphasized the study of words. Both of these tendencies, which had been in conflict to a greater or less degree during the preceding century, agreed in eliminating revealed religion from education.

This dual movement admits of an easy explanation. In the great process of human development extremes tend to beget extremes. The path of human progress is zigzag. Throughout the seventeenth century, which we have just considered, a mere formal religion remained in the ascendency. It continued the controlling factor in education, in spite of the attacks of the pietists and educational reformers. It long thwarted the confident expectations of Comenius. But a religion, which has lost its vital power, can not hold a permanent ascendency over the world. Its weakness exposes it to attack. A skeptical movement, known as Deism, arose in England, and gradually extended over the whole of Europe. Its principal tenets, as given by Kahnis, are the following: "Christianity is a positive religion, like Judaism and Mohammedanism. It is a prejudice which the Christians have, in common with the Jews and Mohammedans, to imagine that their religion is the only true one. That which separates these religions is the positive, but that is merely the unessential-the shell. In the main point, all positive religions are at one. This main point is natural religion-the religion of sound common sense." Deism rejected the supernatural in religion. As its principles had no other than a speculative basis, they were lacking in certainty and authority, and in many cases prepared the way for the grossest atheism. From the deistic or skeptical stand-point the current education of the time, unduly controlled by nar