opinions of men, as supported and confirmed by common sense, observation, and experience."

Notwithstanding his greatness, Aristotle was hemmed in by the limitations of his age. The end of education with him is the useful and happy citizen. While attaching undue importance to the state, as Plato had done, he still recognized, in some degree, the rights of the family and the individual. The state was to maintain a general supervision over education, while the details were to be left to individual preference and judgment. According to the prevalent view of the time, women and slaves were to be shut out from the benefits of education. The order of education should be-1. Physical; 2. Moral; 3. Scientific. The purpose of physical training, however, was not, as in Sparta, the development of brute force, but the production of healthful vigor and manly courage. In moral education, correct habits were to precede theoretic teaching, the child being brought up in the exercise of the virtues that were to form later the matter of precept. Dialectics, or the art of disputation, was the basis of scientific training, since it served as a mental gymnastic and led to the acquisition of the philosophic sciences. Drawing was insisted on as a useful means of developing the sense of the beautiful. Mathematics in its higher forms, as having no connection with the moral nature of man, was not regarded as of much importance. Rhetoric, philosophy, and politics received due attention. "Music, accompanied with singing, so far as it is subservient to education, ought to be encouraged by reason of its great influence on manners, in which respect, however, its application is very narrow. But it has other uses; it tends

to purify the passions of the soul, as is especially the case with tragedy, and is good for recreation and for a resource in leisure." The acquisition of knowledge was looked upon as naturally agreeable, and the method of proceeding from the known to the unknown, from the concrete to the abstract, was clearly pointed out.

The theories of these three great thinkers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, made no visible impress upon the educational practice of their time. This study of their views has been interesting and necessary only as showing the height to which the heathen intelligence could attain. The educational theories of these philosophers are of no great use to us, except as containing here and there a valuable hint and preparing the way for a fullorbed conception of education. The heathen world could not produce a system of education suited to the wants of Christian civilization.

2. ROME.

Ancient Rome has a history extending through more than a thousand years. During this long period it passed through various stages of development. From a condition of weakness and barbarism, it rose to be the imposing mistress of the world and the chief representative of human progress. It gathered into its arms the elements of Grecian and Oriental culture, and, as its end drew nigh, it scattered them freely over the rest of Europe. Rome has been the bearer of culture to the modern world. To trace the course of education through the whole extent of Roman history would prove tedious, and bring us no compensating advantage. Our inquiry

must be limited to a single typical period. This we find in the age of Augustus, when Roman character and Roman culture produced their richest fruits. It is the age of Cicero and Virgil.

Roman character, which lies at the basis of Roman history and culture, deserves a passing word. It is in striking contrast with Grecian character. Both are interesting, but one-sided and defective. The Greek, with his restless, lively, emotional nature, was æsthetic, worshiping the beautiful; the Roman, with his rugged strength, was practical, reverencing the useful. These types of character are complementary of each other; and when united and ennobled by Christianity, they present the highest form of manhood.

The Roman, no doubt, received from nature something of this practical tendency, which was afterward fostered by outward circumstances. The small colony that first settled on the banks of the Tiber was hemmed in by hostile communities. Freedom of development was repressed. Unless they consented to give up their individuality, or perhaps their very existence, the Romans were forced to conquer a place in Italy. This necessity called forth an aggressive, warlike spirit; and at the same time it awakened an ardent patriotism and thrifty industry. These are the factors which produced Rome's prosperity. To the Roman, life was serious; his manner was stately and grave. The finest feelings of humanity, the domestic and social affections, the refined pleasures of literature and art, were sacrificed for the sterner duties of framing laws, constructing aqueducts and highways, declaring wars, and leading armies. The spirit of conquest characterized the Romans, and

made them utilitarian in all their views and aims. Utilitarianism determined education. "The children of the Romans," says Cicero, "are brought up that they may some time be useful to the country, and hence they should be taught the nature of the state and the regulations of our forefathers. Our country has borne and educated us on the condition that we consecrate to its service the best powers of our spirit, talent, and understanding; therefore we must learn the arts through which we can serve the state, for I hold that to be the greatest wisdom and the highest virtue."

The family life of Rome marked a notable advance over that of Greece and the Oriental countries. The worth of woman began to receive proper recognition. Polygamy was not tolerated. In theory, the husband was unlimited master, and even held the right of life and death over his children; but, in practice, the wife, by her virtues and tact, softened the sternness of his authority and arrived at undisputed control in the household. The type of womanhood produced in the best days of Rome was admirable. Its leading traits were attractive dignity, strong motherly instincts, and lovely domestic virtues. Not diamonds or pearls, but her two rosy-cheeked boys, were Cornelia's most precious jewels. The Roman matron managed her household tastefully and frugally, and found delight in caring for her children. For the first six or seven years she was their only teacher; and with the utmost fidelity she formed their language, ideas, and moral sentiments. It was not till the age of degeneracy had set in that Roman mothers intrusted their children to nurses and pedagogues.

Elementary instruction in school began with the

seventh year, and embraced reading, writing, and arithmetic. The teacher of the primary school was called literator. The general custom was to teach the names and order of the letters before their forms-a method that Quintilian properly criticises. In connection with spelling and reading, great care was bestowed upon pronunciation. By degrees the easier poets were read and explained, and choice passages were learned by heart. Writing was taught by inscribing a copy on a waxen tablet or board, and allowing the pupil to follow the outline of the letters with the stylus. After reading and writing came the art of reckoning, to which importance was attached because of its value in business. The fingers and an abacus of pebbles were extensively employed; and, through repeated mental exercises, the pupil was accustomed to compute with rapidity. In one of his odes, Horace presents us a picture of boys passing along the streets of Rome with slate and satchel, not unlike what may be seen in the modern

town.

The school regulations were exacting, and the discipline was sufficiently severe. Obedience and modesty were looked upon as important qualities. The pupils were required to be neat in dress and cleanly in person, and to observe a quiet decorum. On entering the school-room, they greeted the teacher with a respectful salutation. Corporal punishment was employed. The ferule was the ordinary instrument of punishment; but, in case of grave faults, the rod or whip was also used.

The primary training of the child ended with the twelfth year, when he was handed over to the literatus in order to receive more advanced instruction. The