(Ger.), Lobel (Fr.), Jarmen (Swd.), Vetterli (Swiss), and Kropatschech (Fr. and Port.). The objection to this style of gun is, that its balance alters as the magazine is emptied.

2. Where they are contained in the stock, as in the Spencer (old style), Meigs (all Am.), Evans (Am. and Russian), Hotchkiss, ChaffeeReece, and others.

3. Where they are contained in a chamber behind the barrel, as in the Schulboff (Russian), where they revolve around a central pin as in a revolver (which is complicated).

4. Where they are contained in a magazine (fixed or detachable) attached to the rear of the barrel, as in the Lee (Am.), Elliott (Am.), Mannlicher (Aus.), Vitali (It.), Burton (Am.), Lee Burton (Am.), Owen Jones (Eng.), which seems to be generally preferred for military purposes.

The new Spencer (shot-gun and rifle) and Colt are operated by the pulling back and pushing forward of a knob under the center of the barrel, which is held in the left hand when the piece

is being aimed. Like the Winchester, they can be fired without taking them from the shoulder. Most of the others (especially the European) are boit guns-i. e., instead of a lever, the rifle is operated by a bolt, which is actuated by a short handle. When this handle is turned to the left and drawn back, the old cartridge is ejected, the gun cocked, and a new cartridge thrown opposite the cartridge chamber. When it is pushed forward and turned down, the cartridge is forced into the chamber, and the breech is closed and locked. In the Mannlicher (Aus.) the bolt is drawn straight back

found to increase very greatly the efficiency of the troops that were armed with it. During the Turco-Russian War, the Turks armed some ⚫ of their troops, usually the cavalry, with Winchesters. They were also used by the infantry at Plevna with great effect in repelling the Russian attacks. The Swiss were the first European nation to adopt a repeater for their troops. Germany, within the past year, suddenly equipped its army with the repeating Mauser, and since then there has been a race between the different nations as to which shall first provide a magazine - gun for their troops. The different rifles may be divided as follow:

1. Those in which the cartridges are contained in a tube under the barrel, as in the Winchester (Am.), Bullard (Am.), Henry (Am.), Ward Biviton (Am.), Spencer (new model, Am.), Colt (new model, Am.), Mauser

LEE MAGAZINE GUN.

ward, so that the gun need not be taken from the shoulder. The more modern repeaters have a device by which the magazine may be closed and the rifle used as a single loader.

In the Lee (Am.), Vitali (It.), and others,

small detachable magazines, carrying from four to six cartridges, are slipped into position under the breech-opening when it is desired to use the magazine, the soldier carrying several. The cartridges are pressed up one at a time by a spring in the magazine.

The first repeating-rifles were only adapted to light charges. They are now made to carry as heavy ones as are needed, the Winchester Express using ninety grains of powder. The general opinion of experts is, that the coming military rifle will be a repeater, with a caliber of about 31, using 90 to 100 grains of compressed and (if possible) smokeless powder, and a long composite bullet-i. e., a steel shell with a lead center, weighing about 340 grains. Such a rifle will sweep the ground for 600 yards, without any elevation of the sights, will give a range of 2,000 yards, and in emergencies will render it possible to produce a hail of fire that would be irresistible. The cartridges are so light that the soldier can carry a much larger number of them than he can of those now in

use.

ROACH, JOHN, an American ship-builder, born in Mitchellstown, County Cork, Ireland, Dec. 25, 1813; died in New York city Jan. 10, 1887. The death of his father when he was twelve years old threw him upon his own resources, and he supported himself until he was sixteen, when he came to the United States.

JOHN ROACH.

After varying fortunes he found work in James Allaire's iron-foundry, where he served an apprenticeship and was a journeyman machinist. At the age of twenty-one he had saved $1,500, $500 of which he then invested in Illinois prairie-land, leaving the remainder in Mr. Allaire's hands and losing it in his subsequent failure. He resumed work as a machinist, learning also to make castings for marine engines and ship-work. When he had saved $100 he joined three other mechanics in buying the Etna Iron Works, then in the hands of a receiver, subsequently buying out their interest and possessing a prosperous business

99 66

at the age of thirty-six. At the height of his first prosperity his foundry was destroyed by a boiler explosion, and he experienced great difficulty in obtaining money to rebuild on a larger scale; but after he had established himself again his success was rapid. In his new works he constructed the engines of the "Dunderberg,' Bristol," and "Providence," the largest ever built in this country, and, becoming a ship-builder as well as an iron founder, increased his plant by the purchase of the Morgan Iron Works in 1867, the Neptune Works in 1868, the Franklin Forge and the Allaire Works in 1870, and the ship-yards at Chester, Pa., in 1871. In the latter year he began building iron vessels, and completed in all sixty-three during the next twelve years under contracts with the United States Government, corporations, and private individuals. Ninety per cent. of the iron vessels sailing under the American flag were built by him, mostly for the merchant marine. For the Government he built six of the great monitors ordered during President Grant's administration, and more recently the three cruisers "Chicago," "Atlanta," and "Boston," and the dispatch-boat "Dolphin," besides repairing many old vessels. The refusal of the Government to accept the "Dolphin " in 1885 led to his suspension, but the vast works were reopened soon afterward upon the acceptance of the ship. From 1871 till his death he built in all 114 iron vessels, and in the latter part of his life his possessions were so extensive that he could draw from his own property every article that entered into the construction of a complete sea-going vessel.

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. The year 1887-'88 was remarkable for momentous events in the history of the Roman Catholic Church. During the year 1887 constant preparations were made for the celebration of the Golden Jubilee, or the fiftieth anniversary of the ordination of Leo XIII to the priesthood. This anniversary was signalized by the presentation of gifts from all the rulers of Europe, with the exception of King Humbert of Italy. President Cleveland sent through His Eminence, Cardinal Gibbons, an appropriately bound copy of the Constitution of the United States. It was received by His Holiness with marked distinction. The present Pope was ordained on the last day of the year 1837. He celebrated mass in honor of the great event in his life on January 1, 1888. Rome was crowded with pilgrims, strangers, and the halls of the Vatican were hardly large enough to hold the innumerable gifts sent from all parts of the world. Among them were Hebrew Bibles from Jewish rabbis, a magnificent present from the Sultan, and a gold basin from the Queen of England.

On January 30, Cardinals Gibbons and Taschereau started for Rome. During their stay in Rome, Cardinal Gibbons presented his celebrated letter against the condemnation of the Knights of Labor. Dr. McGlynn, late rector

of St. Stephen's Church, New York city, who had been suspended by the Most Rev. Archbishop Corrigan for insisting on publicly preaching that private property in land is a crime, was excommunicated for refusing to go to Rome when summoned by the Prefect of the Propaganda. In France no change-except a slightly favorable movement-took place in the relations of the Government to the Church. In Germany an entente cordiale was arranged between the Pope and Prince Bismarck. His Holiness advised the Catholics of Germany to support the Septennat bill in the interests of the peace of Europe. Herr Windhorst and the Center did not at first sympathize with the policy of Rome in thus by a concession mitigating the tyranny of the Kulturkampf. But the matter was settled by firm protests of loyalty and reverence to the Holy Father on the part of the ex-Hanoverian Chancellor. In Italy some commotion was occasioned by the rumors of a coming triumph of the party of Conciliation. Padre Tosti printed a pamphlet favoring a modus vivendi between the Vatican and the Quirinal. Several Italian deputies were in favor of it, and the tenor of "Le Moniteur de Rome," the semi-official organ of the Vatican, did not disapprove of it. Numerous articles and pamphlets were written on the subject of the possibility of the restoration of Rome to the Holy See; but apparently nothing practical came of them. In England, particularly among the Tories, a movement to establish diplomatic relations between the Court of St. James and the Vatican seemed to have some force. Catholic opinion in Ireland had become so crystallized in favor of Home Rule, that it was felt that some attempt must be made to counterbalance its influence at Rome. Mgr. Persico, formerly Bishop of Savannah, was, with Mgr. Gualdi, sent to Ireland. But his utterances seemed to show that he was satisfied that the archbishops and bishops of Ireland were right in their championship of the cause of the people. The Duke of Norfolk, the head of the Catholic family of the Howards, is looked upon as the leader of the Catholic anti-Home-Rule party in England, while Lord Ripon, an equally devout Catholic and a convert, is one of the chiefs of the pro-Irish movement in the Liberal party. In Venezuela a struggle between the Catholic and Radical parties resulted in the exile of the archbishop to San Francisco. On January 30, 1887, Cardinal Ferrieri died at Rome. On February 17 Rt. Rev. Pfraengle was installed as abbot of St. Mary's Monastery, Newark, N. J. On January 26 Cardinal Jacobini died at Rome. On March 4 Father Beckx, General of the Society of Jesus for thirty-three years, died in Rome. On March 17 Cardinals Gibbons and Taschereau received their hats in consistory; and on March 25 Cardinal Gibbons took formal possession of his titular church of Santa Maria in Trastevere. On March 27 was published the brief of the Holy Father addressed to Bishop Ireland in favor of

the total abstinence movement. On March 29 the Holy Father, as a mark of his approbation of the Most Rev. Archbishop Corrigan's management of the McGlynn revolt, conferred on him the rank of bishop-assistant at the Pontifical throne. On April 10 the Holy Father sent out a brief relating to the founding of the Catholic University. On April 12 the ancient cathedral at St. Augustine, Fla., was almost totally destroyed by fire. On April 15 the Rt. Rev. Matthew Haskins was consecrated Bishop of Providence, R. I., to succeed Bishop Hendrickin-by the Most Rev. Archbishop of Boston. On May 1 the Rt. Rev. P. D. Ludden was consecrated Bishop of Syracuse, N. Y., by the Most Rev. Archbishop Corrigan, D. D. On May 22 the first church in New York dedicated to St. Thomas Aquinas, the saint and philosopher, whose doctrines Leo VIII has specially promulgated, was blessed by Bishop Loughlin in Brooklyn. On June 3 the grand cathedral at Providence, R. I., was formally opened. On May 21, during Queen Victoria's Jubilee celebration, Mgr. Ruffo-Scilla, the first Papal envoy to enter the English court since the Reformation was received. On May 27 the Rt. Rev. Lawrence Scanlan was consecrated Bishop by the Most Rev. Archbishop Riordan. On July 8 was published in "The Catholic Review" the circular of the Most Rev. Archbishop Corrigan, in which was announced the excommunication of Dr. McGlynn. On August 2 the Redemptorists celebrated with reverent splendor the centenary of the death of St. Alphonsus Liguori. On September 2 the abbey of St. Meinrad (Benedictine) at Indiantown, Ind., was destroyed by fire. On September 17 the centenary celebration of the Constitution of the United States was closed with prayer by Cardinal Gibbons. On October 2 St. Michael's church, Newark, was consecrated by Bishop Wigger. On September 23 Most Rev. Z. X. Leroy, Archbishop of New Orleans, died in France. On October 9 the pallium was conferred on the Most Rev. Archbishop Gross, of Portland, Ore., by Cardinal Gibbons. On October 17 the Rev. Dr. Kerner, who had come from England to serve the Italians, was killed in New York by the falling of his unfinished school-house. On October 28 the Rt. Rev. Maurice F. Burke was consecrated Bishop of Cheyenne, W. T., by Archbishop Feehan. On the same day Rt. Rev. Nicholas Matz, coadjutor of the Bishop of Denver, was consecrated by Archbishop Salpointe. On November 2 Cardinal Pellegrini died. On November 30 Rt. Rev. Thomas Bonacum was consecrated Bishop of Lincoln, Neb., at St. Louis by Archbishop Kenrich. On the same day the Rt. Rev. Richard Scannell was conse. crated Bishop of Concordia, La., by Archbishop Feehan at Nashville. Archbishop Lamy, of Santa Fé, died in that city on February 14. It was announced early in February that the new Bishops of Alton, Ill., and Belleville, Ill., were the Very Rev. Father Janssens and Rev. James Ryan, of Ottawa, Ill. On February 25 Rt. Rev.

D. M. Blanchet, D. D., Bishop of Nesqualy, died. On March 11, Rt. Rev. Bishop McGovern was consecrated at Harrisburg. Among the other important deaths were Bishop-elect James O'Reilly, appointed to the see of Wichita, Kan.; Isidor Robert, O. S. B.; ArchAbbot Wimmer; Rev. John J. Riordan, of Castle Garden; and Rev. Dr. Moriarty, the well-known author, and Père Rouquette.

ROUMANIA, a kingdom in Eastern Europe. Independence was proclaimed on May 22, 1877, and recognized by the powers at the Berlin Congress on June 13, 1878. The principality of Roumania was erected into a kingdom on March 26, 1881. The fundamental laws are embodied in the Constitution, elaborated in 1866 by a Constituent Assembly, and modified in 1884 by the chambers convoked for the purposes of revision. It delegates the national representation to two chambers, a Senate consisting of 120 members and a Chamber of Deputies, having 183 members. Both classes of representatives are elected by electoral colleges in each district. The reigning sovereign is Carol I, son of Prince Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who was born April 20, 1839, and was elected Prince of Roumania in 1886. He married in 1869 the Princess Elizabeth of Wied. In default of heirs to his body, the King in 1886 chose his nephew, Prince Ferdinand of Hohenzollern, to be his successor. The heir-apparent is the second son of Leopold, hereditary Prince of Hohenzollern, and was born at Sigmaringen, Aug. 24, 1865.

The ministry is composed of the following members: President of the Council and Minister of the Interior, Joan C. Bratiano; Minister of Foreign Affairs, M. Phere Kyde; Minister of Public Instruction and Worship, D. Sturdza; Minister of Justice, Eugene Statesco; Minister of Agriculture, Commerce. Industry, and Domains, V. Gheorghian; Minister of Finance, C. Nacu; Minister of Public Works, P. S. Aurelian; Minister of War, Gen. A. Angelesco, successor to M. Falcojano, who resigned his post on Jan. 24, 1886.

Area and Population.-The area of the kingdom is 48,307 square miles. The population is estimated at 5,376,000. The number of marriages in 1885 was 39,586; of births, 215,776; of deaths, 126,010; excess of births over deaths, 89,766. In 1886 there were 77,976 marriages, 215,209 births, and 136,755 deaths, making the natural increment 78,454. The number of Israelites in Roumania was estimated at the time of the Treaty of Berlin at 400,000 souls, the Bohemians at 200,000, the Slavs at 85,000, the Germans at 39,000, the Hungarians at 29,500, the_Armenians at 8,000, the Greeks at 5,000, the French at 2,000, and the English at 1,000. The population of Bucharest, the capital, is 221,000. Jassy has about 90,000 inhabitants, and Galatz 80,000.

Finances. The receipts of the treasury during the year ending March 30, 1885, were 127,359,220 lei; the disbursements, 130,352,265

lei. The receipts for 1885-'86 were 124,478,398 lei, and the expenditures 129,971,646 lei. The budget for 1886-'87 made the receipts 138,237,695 lei, and the expenditures 134,244,650 lei. The expenditure for the public debt was estimated at 57,546,959 lei; for the army, 28,552,760 lei; for education and worship, 13,120,294 lei. The nominal amount of the debt outstanding on April 1, 1886, was 724,171,624 lei. At the same date in 1887 it was 835,815,342 lei, having been increased by 16,170,000 lei of treasury warrants and other sunis raised through the Government savings-bank. In 1887 a loan of 30,000,000 lei was raised in Berlin, at 4 per cent. interest.

The Army and Navy. The effective strength of the regular army on the peace footing is 1,249 officers, 31,627 rank and file, 5,558 horses, and 312 guns. The territorial army numbers 1,213 officers and 124,000 men, with 11,397 horses. The kingdom is divided into four districts, besides the district of the Dobrudja, where an active division is permanently stationed. The permanent army and the Dorobantzi, or territorial troops number on the peace footing about 95,000 men, which can be increased to 225,000 on the outbreak of war. There are besides about 150,000 militia and depot troops, without reckoning the Landsturm. The average expenditure on the army is only about 30,000,000 lei.

The number of men of the age of twenty-one drawn for service in the permanent army for 1887 was 14,000. Every recruit who possesses and can maintain a suitable horse, or who will pay 300 lei into the military chest, is assigned to the calarashi or cavalry. The infantry serve three years in the permanent army and five in the reserve, after which they are enrolled in the militia till they become thirty-six years of age.

The fortifications of Bucharest, on plans approved by General Brialmont, the Belgian military engineer, were rapidly constructed and nearly completed before the close of 1887. The plans were modified in important particulars on the advice of German officers. The Parliament, on Feb. 3, 1887, voted 5,000,000 lei for completing the fortifications.

The navy consists of two avisos, two gunboats, a torpedo-vessel, and two torpedo-boats. There are besides three launches for the police service of the Danube, which was confided to the Government of Roumania by the European Congress.

Commerce. The total value of the imports. in 1884 was 294,986.000 lei or francs, against 359,907,000 lei in 1883; the value of the exports, 184,116,000 lei, against 220,650,279 lei. The imports from Austria were 129,867,000 lei in value; from Great Britain, 58,223.000 lei; from Germany, 43,384,000, lei; from France, 23,804,000 lei. The exports to Austria amounted to 70,392,000 lei; to Great Britain, 61,783,000 lei; to France, 17,417,000 lei. The imports and exports of the principal classes