CARMEN

title is Friars of Our Lady of Mount Carmel. The order has, traditionally, a very ancient origin, but as a religious order approved by the Roman Catholic Church is contemporary with the Dominican and Franciscan orders. According to the legends the Carmelites trace the origin of their order back to the early days of the kingdom of Israel, the time of the prophets Elijah (Elias) and Elisha (Elisæus). Elias, in his early manhood, says the legend, retired for religious contemplation to Mount Carmel, and there, taught by an angel, gathered to himself a number of men of like disposition, and instituted a society of contemplatives for worship of the true God and the attainment of spiritual perfection. Among the disciples attracted to this school of religion were the youths who afterward were the minor prophets Jonah, Micah, and Obadiah; and at a later period the renowned philosopher of Magna Græcia, Pythagoras, was numbered among the inquirers after the true religion and the science of divine things in this great school of the prophets : Pythagoras' instructor was the prophet Daniel. Elijah's wife instituted an order of female recluses. As pointing to the existence on Mount Carmel of some such institution as the legend postulates, reference is made to Kings xviii. 19 and following; 2 Kings ii. 25; and 2 Kings iv. 25.

The world outside the precincts of those religious communities appears to have been entirely ignorant of this ancient institution till early in the 13th century, when Phocas, a Greek monk of Patmos, brought to the Latin patriarch of Constantinople intelligence of the existence in olden time of a great monastic or eremitic establishment on Mount Carmel, of which traces still remained. The site of the ancient ruins was occupied by a venerable monk from Calabria and 10 companion monks; and for these Phocas petitioned the patriarch to formulate or to approve a rule of monastic or eremitical life. This was done, and afterward the rule was approved by Pope Honorius III. in 1224. The connection of this order with the ancient school of the prophets, even if the traditional story be accepted, seems to lack proof. All that we are told which could give color to the claim that the new eremites are in the line of succession from the eminent school of prophets is, that in a vision Elias gave orders to the monk from Calabria to found a religious establishment on the ancient site. The community was expelled by the Saracens from its seat on Mount Carmel and took refuge in the west. One of the earliest houses of the Carmelite order in the west was founded at Alnwick in England; and about the same time, near the middle of the 13th century, St. Louis, the king, founded at Paris the first Carmelite house in France-the Carmes, of terrible celebrity in the great Revolution. Pope Innocent IV. modified the rule of the order and assimilated it to the Dominican and Franciscan rule. One of the traditions represents Jesus and his mother as initiates of the ancient order; and Saint Simon Stock, sixth general of the order, an Englishman, received from the hands of the Virgin the scapulary of Mount Carmel with the assurance that whoso should die wearing that scapulary would surely not be damned. A relaxation of the primitive severity of the rule was permitted by Eugenius IV. in 1431, and

this led to a scission of the order into two suborders, the Conventuals or Calced (wearing shoes) and the Observants or Discalced (shoeless or barefooted). Pope Benedict XIII. in 1725 permitted the order to add to the statues in Saint Peter's Church of founders of religious orders, one to their founder, which was erected with the inscription: "Universus Ordo Carmelitarum Fundatori suo Sancto Eliæ prophetæ erexit" ("The whole order of the Carmelites erected this statue to their founder, Saint Elias, the prophet"). The order of Carmelite nuns dates from the middle of the 15th century. In 1562 the great mystic Saint Teresa, who was a Carmelite nun, in virtue of a papal brief established a separate branch of the sisterhood, under a very severe rule: these are the Barefoot Carmelite Nuns. She then undertook to restore in the original order of Carmelite Friars the ancient severity of discipline, and succeeded; the result is the order or suborder of the Barefoot or Discalced Carmelites. The Carmelite order, in its several forms, has establishments all over the world. The headquarters of the order in America are at Niagara Falls.

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Car'men, a novel by Prosper Mérimée, published in 1847. Don José Lizzarrabengoa, Navarrese and corporal in a cavalry regiment, meets at Seville a gypsy known as Carmen. While taking her to prison for a murderous assault on another woman, he connives at her escape, and is reduced to the ranks. Jealous, he kills his lieutenant, and joins a band of smugglers. In a duel he kills Garcia, her rom or husband, and becomes her rom in turn. offers to forget everything if she will go with him to America. She refuses, for the sake of another lover, as he believes, and he threatens to kill her. She answers that it is so ordained, but that "free Carmen has been, and free she will always be." Don José kills her, buries her body in the woods, rides to Cordova, and delivers himself to the authorities. The romance is best known in its operatic version, the adaptation having been made by Meilhac and Halévy. Carmen Seculare. See HORACE.

Carmen Sylva, pen name of ELIZABETH, queen of Rumania (q.v.).

Carmi, Ill., a city and county-seat of White County, 150 miles southeast of Springfield, on the Little Wabash River. It is the centre of an agricultural region and exports fruit, grain, flour, tile, and lumber. It has flouring and saw mills, brick works, machine shops, etc. Pop. (1900) 2,939.

Carmichael, kär'mi-kal, Frederic Falkiner, Irish clergyman and author: b. 1831. He was educated privately, and entering the Anglican ministry in 1857 held several church preferments in Dublin, becoming a canon of Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin, 1886. He has published: Jesus Christ, the Way, the Truth, the Life'; 'Donellan Lectures (1876); The Responsibilities of God.'

Carmichael, Montgomery, English civil servant: b. Birkenhead, England, 17 May 1857. He was educated at Bonn and Munich and entered the English consular service in 1890. In 1892 he was appointed vice-consul at Leghorn, and he has been vice-consul for West Tuscany from 1896. He is a regular contributor to the 'Saturday Review,' and has published Sketches and Stories, Grave and Gay) (1896); 'In Tus

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cany, a delightfully sympathetic description of Tuscan life (1901); The Lady Poverty (1901); Life of John William Walshe,' a strongly conceived piece of imaginary biography (1902).

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Car'minatives, remedies that cause warm, pleasant sensation in the stomach and act as stimulants to the muscles, causing peristalsis, thus relieving flatus; and that increase the flow of the gastric and intestinal secretions. Most of the drugs containing volatile oils are carminatives; as, the mint family, parsley, anise, fennel, caraway, cardamom, ginger, cinnamon, cloves, etc. See VOLATILE OILS.

Car'mine, the most splendid of all the red colors, is made from the cochineal insect, or Coccus cacti. The finest is that which is thrown down from an aqueous infusion by chloride of tin. This, after depositing, is collected and dried. The operations require the greatest care, for the brilliancy of the color is affected by the weather, light, and temperature. The color produced by alum has a darker tint, and constitutes lake. Carmine, or carminic acid, is also the name given by chemists to the coloring matter of cochineal. The acid is a purplish body, extremely soluble in water and in alcohol. It forms salts with the heavy metals, and it yields various products when acted on by chlorine, nitric acid, and other re-agents. Carmine is used to some extent in dyeing, in water-color painting, to color artificial flowers, confection

ery, etc.

Carmo'na (ancient CARMO), a town in Spain, 20 miles from Seville, on a height overlooking a large plain covered with olive-trees. It is well built, containing many handsome mansions belonging to the nobility, who, though usually resident in Seville, spend part of the year here. The principal square is well planted, and, among other edifices, possesses a handsome Gothic church with a lofty spire. Another conspicuous object is a Moorish castle, flanked with massive towers, and there are two old Roman gates. The manufactures are chiefly woolen hats, leather, and earthenware. Recent important excavations on the site of the ancient necropolis, to the west of the modern town, have brought to light a large number of tombs and funeral triclinia in almost perfect preservation. Considerable portions of the Moorish wall and Alcazar still remain. Pop. (1903) 18,000.

Carmontel, kär-môn-těl, or Carmontelle, Louis Carrogis, loo-e kär-rō-zhē, French poet: b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1717; d. there, 26 Dec. 1806. He is best known by his 'Proverbes Dramatiques (10 vols.). These are without much connection in themselves, being, in fact, only a series of dramatic scenes, but are well adapted for private theatres. The fertility of Carmontel was as extraordinary as his ease in writing. He is said to have left, besides his printed works and his pieces for the theatre, more than a hundred volumes of manuscripts.

Carnac, kär-nak, France, a village in the department of Morbihan, on a height near the coast, 15 miles southeast of Lorient, and rearkable for the so-called Druidical monuments in its vicinity. These consist of more than 1,100 rude blocks of gray granite, some of which are upward of 18 feet high, standing on end in the midst of a wide heath. They are in the form of

unpolished obelisks, with the vertex reversed, and are arranged in 11 lines, forming 10 avenues, with a curved row at one end. There are many gaps in the lines; almost every house and wall in the vicinity is seemingly built from this artificial quarry. They are evidently of very ancient date, but their origin is unknown. Pop. (1891) 2,901. See Lukis, Chambered Barrows and Other Historic Monuments in Morbihan' (1875); Miln, (Excavations at Carnac (1877-81).

Carnahuba. See CARNAUBA.

Car'nall, Rudolph von, German mining engineer: b. Glatz, 1804; d. 1874. He began the study of mining in Berlin in 1823, was connected with the mining industry in Upper Silesia and rose to be superintendent of mines and director of the general mining office in Breslau. He took part in founding the German Geological Society, lectured at the University of Berlin on the science of mining engineering, and rendered important service to the development of German mining.

Car'nallite, a hydrous chloride of potassium and magnesium, found at Stassfurt, Prussia, and of great commercial importance as being one of the minerals from which come the world's supply of potash salts. See POTASSIUM.

Carnarvon, kär när'von, Henry Howard Molyneux (4th EARL OF), English statesman: b. London, 24 June 1831; d. 28 June 1890. He succeeded his father in the earldom in 1849, and was secretary of state for the colonies, June 1866 to March 1867. During his secretaryship he devised a scheme for the federation of the British North American Colonies, subsequently approved by Parliament. He was again colonial secretary, 1874-8, and lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1885-6. He published The Druses of Mount Lebanon' (1860).

Carnarvon, or Caernarvon, Wales, a seaport town and parliamentary borough, on the southeast side of the Menai Strait, and capital of the county, 209 miles northwest of London. The ancient walls thrown around it by Edward I., and flanked by round towers, are still fairly entire. The magnificent castle or palace of Edward I., and in which Edward II. was born, stands at the west end of the town, almost overhanging the sea, and is externally entire. cluding its court-yards, etc., it covers about two acres of ground. There are extensive ironworks in the town, which supply machinery for steamers, etc. Pop. (1901) 9,760.

In

Carnar'vonshire, or Caernarvonshire, Wales, a maritime county having Carnarvon Bay on the west; Denbigh on the east; the island of Anglesea and the Irish Sea on the north; and Cardigan Bay on the south. Its extreme length, southwest to northeast, is about 52 miles; extreme breadth, 20 miles, although the greater portion of it does not exceed seven or eight miles on an average; area, 369,477 acres. This county is traversed throughout its whole length by lofty mountains, including the Snowdon range, whose highest peak is 3,557 feet above

the sea.

There are other summits varying from 1,500 feet to more than 3,000 feet. Dairy farming, and cattle, horse, and sheep breeding are the principal occupations of the farmer. The cattle and sheep are of a small breed. and copper ores are found in the mountains south, and there are slate quarries at Bethesda,

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Carnatic, kär-nǎt'ic, former province of British India, on the east coast of the peninsula. Its limits were ill defined, but it is commonly thought to have extended from Cape Comorin to lat. 16° N., and from the coast line to an average of about 80 miles inland. It was formerly included in the dominions of the nabob of Arcot, and the contentions arising from a disputed succession first brought the French and English into collision, and ended by the subjugation of the Carnatic under the British influence, which was completely effected in 1801. The Carnatic as one of the wealthy provinces has been the cause of endless native warfare and bloodshed, by which, whoever was victor, the unhappy cultivator suffered in the end; as each successive ruler, feeling his tenure uncertain, cared only to make revenue while the power lasted, an example which was but too closely imitated by his unscrupulous ministers and officials. The Carnatic is now included within the administration of the presidency of Madras.

Carnation, a half-hardy perennial herb (Dianthus caryophyllus) of the natural order Caryophyllacea, a native of southern Europe. It has more or less erect stems with enlarged joints, linear opposite leaves covered with a bloom, and solitary, variously colored terminal perfumed flowers, which naturally appear during summer, but which are produced artificially by certain varieties throughout the year. The plant has been in cultivation for its flowers for more than 2,000 years, but not until the early years of the 16th century did its flowers become greatly differentiated from their original flesh tint, which suggested the popular name (Latin carnatio). So numerous became the varieties that systems of classification were adopted. The popular European system of to-day is: (1) "Selfs," flowers of one color; (2) flakes, flowers with yellow or white ground and striped with either rose, scarlet, or purple; (3) bizarres," resembling flakes except that they are striped with more than one color; (4) "picotees," with white or yellow petals margined with red, etc. The summer-blooming carnations which suggested this classification are little grown in America, but are very popular in Europe. They seem to demand a moist, cool climate. The group most cultivated in America and known as perpetual-flowering tree, or monthly carnations, originated in France about 1840 as the result of crossing and selec

tion. The first of these varieties imported into America is said to have arrived in 1868, since when the growing of carnations under glass as a crop has developed. The extent of the industry is very great and is steadily growing. According to the census report of 1900 the value of the carnation crop in 1899 was about $4,000,000, produced in about 9,000 American commercial greenhouses.

Propagation of the monthly carnations is usually effected by means of cuttings of young stems. When well rooted they are potted in good soil and kept until late spring, when they are transplated to the open ground or to the benches where they are to blossom. A winter temperature ranging between 50 and 55° at night and preferably only 10° higher during the day,

The most common insect pests of the carnaThe red spider thrives best in dry atmosphere, tion are the red spider and the green aphis. and is most easily controlled by syringing with water and evaporating (not burning) sulphur in the greenhouse once a week for about five weeks,

tobacco.

The

often

when the insects become troublesome. green fly or green aphis seems to thrive under any ordinary conditions. It is usually fought with tobacco fumes or various extracts of troublesome: Rust (Uromyces caryophyllinus), Three fungous diseases are spot, or blight (Septoria dianthi), and anthracvented by judicious management, and when they nose (Volutella sp). These are largely preoccur may be controlled by destroying diseased plants and by spraying with Bordeaux mixture and leaves as blisters which break and expose (see FUNGICIDE). Rust appears on the stems brown spores. Spot consists of brown dots with black centres where the spores Anthracnose is characterized by grayish-brown spots. (Bailey, Cyclopædia of American Horticulture, New York 1900-1902). Thirty-seven acres of land are devoted to the raising of carnations at a nursery in Los Angeles, California. Nine greenhouses, each 200 feet long and 15 feet wide, together holding 35 tons of glass, are used to raise the young plants.

etc.

are borne.

Carna'tion (Latin, caro, carnis, “flesh”), in the fine arts, the coloring of the skin of the human body. The use of carnation requires very attentive study and great skill in the artist. It varies with the sex of the individual, with the classes and countries to which the subjects belong, with the passions, the state of the health, lively red; the breast, neck, and upper part of The cheeks are, in a healthy subject, of a the arms of a soft white; the belly yellowish. At the extremities the color becomes colder, and at the joints assumes a violet tint, on account of the transparency of the skin. All these shades require to be softly blended. Two faults in carnation are chiefly to be avoided,- hardness, the fault of the masters of the 15th century, and quently painted his flesh so that it appeared too great weakness. Guido Reni not infrealmost bloodless. The French school has gone farthest in this respect. The flesh of the followers of this school often looks like porcelain or wax. Titian and Rubens are unrivaled in carnation.

Carnauba, kär-nä-oo'ba, the Brazilian name of the palm, Copernica cerifera, which has its leaves coated with waxy scales (whence the name wax-palm), yielding a useful wax by boiling. The fruit and pith are eaten, the leaves are variously employed, and the wood is used in building.

Carne'ades, Greek philosopher: b. Cyrene, Africa, 213 B.C.; d. 123 B.C. He studied first under Diogenes the Stoic, but subsequently attended the lectures of Egesinus, who explained the doctrines of Arcesilaus; and succeeding his master in the chair of the academy, he restored its reputation by softening the prevailing pyrrhonism and admitting practical probabilities. The doctrine of Carneades specifically was, that "as the senses, the understanding, and the imagination frequently deceive us, they cannot be the infallible judges of truth, but that from the im