called north and south, with regard to the poles they are directed to. The other two, viz. the intersections of the horizon and first vertical, are called east and west. The cardinal points therefore coincide with the four cardinal regions of the heavens, and are 90° distant from each other. The intermediate points are called collateral points.

CARDINAL signs, in the zodiac, are Aries, Libra, Cancer, and Capricorn.

CARDINAL, more particularly, signifies an ecclesiastical prince in the Romish church, being one who has a voice in the conclave at the election of a Pope.The cardinals were originally nothing more than deacons, to whom was entrusted the care of distributing the alms to the poor of the several quarters of Rome; and as they held assemblies of the poor in certain churches of their several districts, they took the title of these churches. They began to be called cardinals in the year 300, during the pontificate of St. Sylvester, by which appellation was meant the chief priests of a parish, and next in dignity to a bishop.This office grew more considerable afterwards, and by small degrees arrived at its present height, in which it is the reward of such as have served his holiness well, even princes thinking it no diminution of their honour to become members of the college of cardinals.

The cardinals compose the Pope's council, and till the time of Urban VIII. were styled most illustrious; but by a decree of that Pope in 1630, they had the title of eminence conferred upon them.

At the creation of a new cardinal, the Pope performs the ceremony of shutting and opening his mouth, which is done in a private consistory. The shutting his mouth, implies the depriving him of the liberty of giving his opinion in congregations; and the opening his mouth, which is performed fifteen days after, signifies the taking off this restraint. However, if the Pope happens to die during the time a cardinal's mouth is shut, he can neither give his voice in the election of a new Pope, nor be himself advanced to that dignity.

The privileges of the cardinals are very great: they have an absolute power in the church during the vacancy of the holy see they have a right to elect the new Pope, and are the only persons on whom the choice can fall: most of the grand offices in the court of Rome are Alled by cardinals. The dress of a cardi. nal is a red sourtanne, a rochet, a short VOL. III.

purple mantle, and a red hat. When they are sent to the courts of princes, it is in quality of legates a latere and when they are appointed governors of towns, their government is called by the name of legation.

CARDING, the combing and preparing of wool, cotton, flax, &c. with the instruments called cards.

CARDIOID, in the higher geometry, an algebraical curve, so called from its resemblance to a heart.

CARDIOSPERMUM, in botany, a genus of the Octandria Trigynia class and order. Natural order of Trihilatæ. Sapindi, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx four-leaved; petals four; nectary fourleaved, unequal; capsules three, cornate inflated. There are three species, all of them natives of warm countries. They are annual, and perish soon after they have perfected their seeds. They do not thrive with us excepting in a stove.

CARDIUM, in natural history, the cockle, a genus of worms of the order Testacea; animal a tethys; shell bivalve, nearly equilateral, equivalve, generally convex, longitudinally ribbed, striate or grooved, with a toothed margin; hinge with two teeth near the beak, and a larger remote lateral on each side, each locking into the oppsite. There are nearly 60 species.

CARDUUS, in botany, English thistle, a genus of the Syngenesia Polygamia Equalis class and order. Natural order of Composite Capitate. Cinarocephale, Juss. Essential character: calyx ovate, imbricate, with spiny scales; receptacle hairy. There are fifty-one species.Little need be said of this genus, nature having made abundant provision for their increase, by annexing to their seeds a light down, which makes them readily float in the air, and scatters them wide over the neighbouring fields. As they are usually considered as noxious weeds, rather than ornamental plants, few of them are admitted into the flower garden, and those few are valued more for their variety, than for their beauty.

CAREENING, in the sea language, the bringing a ship to lie down on one side, in order to trim and caulk the other side. A ship is said to be brought to the careen, when, the most of her lading being taken out, she is hauled down on one side by a small vessel as low as necessary; and there kept by the weight of the ballast, ordnance, &c. as well as by ropes, lest her masts should be strained too much, in order that her sides and bottom may M

be trimmed, seams caulked, or any thing that is faulty under water mended.Hence, when a ship lies on one side when she sails, she is said to sail on the careen.

CARET, among grammarians, a character marked thus a, signifying that something is added on the margin, or interlined, which ought to have come in where the caret stands.

CAREX, in botany, English sedge, a genus of the Monoecia Triandria class and order. Natural order of Calamariæ. Cyperoidea, Jussieu. Essential character: ament imbricate; calyx one-leafed; corolla none; female, nectary inflated; three-toothed; stigmas three; seeds threesided, within the 'nectary. There are ninety-seven species. These plants are very nearly allied to the grasses, agreeing with them in their general appearance and leaves. They are, however, of a much harsher texture; the stem is not hollow, but filled with a spongy substance. The difference in the fructification is very considerable, as will appear from a comparison of the generic characters. They are perennial, and flower in May and June. The carices or sedges are classed rather among the noxious plants than with such as are useful, for they yield a very coarse grass and fodder, to the exclusion of real grass and other profitable plants, which they subdue by their strong creeping roots.

CARGO, denotes all the merchandize and effects which are laden on board a ship, exclusive of the crew, rigging, ammunition, provisions, guns, &c. though all these load it sometimes more than the merchandize.

We say that a ship has its cargo, when it is as full of merchandize as it can hold; that it has half its cargo, when it is but half full; that it brings home a rich cargo, when it is laden with precious merchandize and in great quantity; that the merchant has made the whole cargo of the ship, or only one half, or one quarter of the cargo, when he has laden the whole ship at his own expense, or only one half, or one fourth of it.

Disposing of any part of the cargo, before the vessel reaches her intended port, is called breaking bulk.

CARGO, super, a person employed by merchants to go a voyage, and oversee the cargo, and dispose of it to the best advantage.

CARICA, in botany, a genus of the Dioecia Decandria, or rather Polygamia class and order. Natural order of TriCocca. Cucurbitaceæ, Jussieu. Essen

tial character: male calyx 'very small, five-toothed; corolla five-parted, funnelform; filaments in the tube of the corolla, alternately shorter; herm. calyx fivetoothed; corolla five-parted; stigmas five; berry one-celled, many seeded.There are two species, viz. C. papaya, common papaw-tree, and C. posoposo, dwarf papaw-tree. These plants, being natives of hot countries, will not thrive in England without the assistance of the warm stove. Where there are conveniences of a proper height, they deserve a place, as well as almost any of the plants which are cultivated for ornament. They grow to the height of twenty feet, with upright stems, garnished on every side near the top with large shining leaves. The flowers of the male sort come out in clusters on all sides, and the fruit of the female growing round the stalks between the leaves, forming altogether a beautiful appearance.

CARICATURA, in painting, denotes the concealment of real beauties, and the exaggeration of blemishes, but still so as to preserve a resemblance of the object.

CARIES, in surgery, the ulceration of a bone. See SURGERY.

CARINA, in botany, a keel, the name which Linnæus gives to the lower concave petal of a pea-bloom, or butterfly. shaped flower, from its supposed resemblance to the keel of a ship.

CARISSA, in botany, a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Contorta. Apocineæ, Jussieu. Essential character: corolla contorted; berries two, many seeded. There are two species, natives of the East-Indies and Africa.

CARLINA, in botany, English carline thistle, a genus of the Syngenesia Polygamia Equalis class and order. Natural order of Compound Flowers: division of Capitatæ. Cinarocephala, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx radiated, with long, coloured, marginal scales. There are nine species, most of them natives of the South of France, Italy, and Spain.

CARLINES, or CARLINGS, in a ship, two pieces of timber, lying fore and aft, along from beam to beam, where on the ledges rest on which the planks of the ship are fastened. All the carlings have their ends let into the beams culvertail. wise they are directly over the keel, and serve as a foundation for the whole body of the ship.

CARMINATIVES, in pharmacy, medicines used in cholics, or other flatulent

disorders, to dispel the wind. See PA

MACY.

CARMINE, a powder of a very beautiful red colour, bordering upon a purple, and used by painters in miniature, though but rarely, because of its great price.

CARNATION, in botany. See DIAN

THUS.

CARNATION colour, among painters, is understood of all the parts of a picture, in general, which represent flesh, or which are naked and without drapery.

CARNELIAN. See CHALCEDONY. CARNIVAL, or CARNAVAL, a time of rejoicing, a season of mirth, observed with great solemnity by the Italians, particularly at Venice, lasting from Twelfthday till Lent.

CARNIVOROUS, in zoology, an epithet generally applied to animals of every description that subsist for the most part, or entirely, on animal food. In a more limited sense we understand, by carnivorous animals, those only of a savage and voracious nature, assimilating in our ideas some instinctive ferocity of character in the manners of those creatures, when seeking and attacking their prey, as well as actually feeding on flesh. We naturally consider, for this reason, among the principal carnivorous animals, the lion, the tiger, and the wolf; or among birds, the eagle and the kite; with a host of other rapacious creatures, upon which nature has bestowed pre-eminent advantages of courage, strength, and arms, to aid them in seizing upon, and tearing into pieces, those animals on which they feed: they have either formidable canine teeth or fangs; claws or talons; the quadrupeds possessing both, and the birds the latter. Fishes, with very few excep. tions, are carnivorous, but their only of fensive weapons are the teeth, or in some species the spines and prickles disposed on various parts of the body. Quadrupeds, that subsist both on flesh and vegetables, are more or less deficient with respect to those characters, by which carnivorous quadrupeds are known; and those still more so that subsist entirely on roots, barks, fruits, grass, or other vegetables; the brute have no cutting teeth either in the upper or lower jaw; the pecora have them only in the lower jaw; and the front teeth of the bellule are obtuse. The food of those animals is vegetables. See MAMMALIA.

Carnivorous animals are characterised both by their internal organization, and their capacity and inclination for the destruction of their prey; their teeth are

sharp and pointed, even though situated in the back part of the mouth; and these teeth denominated canine are so long in most of the beasts of prey, that they pass a considerable way beyond each other when the jaws are closed. The distribution of the enamel, which is confined to the superficies of the teeth, renders them extremely hard, and this circumstance, joined to an extraordinary bulk of those muscles employed in raising the lower jaw, gives to carnivorous quedrupeds the power of breaking the strongest bones.

The rapacious birds are distinguished by a sharp hard bill, furnished on each side with a pointed process, by which they are enabled to tear asunder the parts of the animals they feed upon. As the digestion of animal substances is accomplished in a short time, the stomach of the carnivorous tribes has a simple figure, without any processes or separations of its cavity, to retain its contents, or to delay their passage into the intestines; and as animal food furnishes but little excrement, the intestinal canal is short, and either totally unprovided with those dilatations which are so remarkable in vegetable eaters, or possesses them only in a slight degree.

Carnivorous animals are further distinguished by the extraordinary strength of their members, which are commonly furnished with sharp claws; these are so contrived, both in the beasts of prey and the accipitrine birds, that they turn inwards by the flexion of the limbs, or the action of seizing any thing, and are retracted by the extension of the toes; thus giving facility and certainty to the capture and retention of fugitive animals. The senses of vision and smell are particularly acute in the carnivorous tribes, as it is by means of them that they discover or seek out their prey.

Carnivorous animals are usually cruel and treacherous in their dispositions ; they are even unsocial with respect to their own species; and hence it is that their numbers are so few, in comparison to that of the graminivorous kind: if it were not for this wise ordinance of nature, the defenceless orders of animals would soon be devoured, and the carnivorous would become the prey of each other.

CARNOSITY, a term sometimes used for an excrescence, or tubercle, in the urethra, the neck of the bladder, &c.

CAROLINEA, in botany, a genus of the Monadelphia Polyandria class and order. Natural order of Columniferæ. Mal

vacex, Jussien. Essential character: monogynous; calyx simple, tubular, truncate; petals ensiform; pome five-groov. ed, two-celled. There are two species, of which C. princeps is a large thornless tree. Leaves alternate; stipules two, short, caducous. Flowers solitary, very large and beautiful; petals yellow. The fruit has the appearance of that of the chocolate, or of cucumber, with seeds like almonds; native of Guiana.

CAROLUS, an ancient English broad piece of gold, struck under Charles I. Its value has of late been at twenty-three shillings sterling, though at the time it was coined it is said to have been rated at only twenty shillings.

CAROLUS, a small copper coin, with a little silver mixed with it, struck under Charles VIII, of France

CAROTIDS, in anatomy, two arteries of the neck, which convey the blood from the aorta to the brain, one called the right carotid, and the other the left. See ANA

TOMY.

CAROXYLON, in botany, a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class and order. Essential character: corolla fivepetalled; nectary five-leaved, converging, inserted into the corolla; seed clothed. There is but one species, viz. C. salsola; has a perennial root; stem arborescent, erect, very branching, naked. Leaves on the branchlets, frequent, imbricate, sessile, subglobular, ovate, concave within and smooth; axils loaded with other leaves. In Africa they use the ashes with mutton suet to make soap.

CARPENTRY, the art of cutting, framing, and joining pieces of wood, for the uses of building. It is one of the sciences subservient to architecture, and is divided into house carpentry and shipcarpentry; the first is employed in raising, roofing, flooring of houses, &c. and the second in the building of ships, barges, &c. The rules in carpentry are much the same with those of joinery; the only difference is, that carpentry is used in building, and joinery in furniture.

CARPESIUM, in botany, a genus of the Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua class and order. Natural order of Compound flowers; division of Discoidea. Corymbiferæ, Jussieu. Essential character: ca lyx imbricate, the outer scales reflex; down none; receptacle naked. There are swo species, viz. C. cernuum, droop. ing carpesium, is a native of the south of France, Italy, Carniola, Austria, Switzerland, and Japan; and C. abrotanoides is a native of China and Japan.

CARPET: this beautiful covering for

floors is of several descriptions, being made of various materials, and various forms. The Turkey, Persia, and Brussels carpets, are chiefly made of silk; the two former, owing to the vivid colours with which the materials are dyed, and the fineness of the texture, are peculiarly rich and beautiful. We have various extensive manufactories, of which those at Wilton and Kidderminster may be accounted the principal. Carpets are there made in large pieces, suited to the full extent of apartments; while the Scotch carpetting, being made in breadths of not more than four feet, affords the convenience of making up to any size; but it is not so lasting. The great carpets are made on frames and rollers, not unlike those for tapestry, and under similar guidance, where the pattern is intricate. Carpet-making supports many thousands of the industrious poor of this country; and being almost wholly founded on the produce of our own island, is of great importance as a national benefit.

CARPHALEA, in botany, a genus of the Tetrandria Monogynia class and order: corolla one-petalled, funnel-form, hairy within; calyx four-cleft, with spatulate scarious segments; capsule two-celled, two-valved, many-seeded. One species, C. corymbosa, found in Madagascar.

CARPINUS, in botany, English hornbeam, a genus of the Monoecia Polyandria class and order. Natural order of Amentaceæ. Essential character; calyx oneleafed, with a ciliate scale; corolla none; male stamens twenty; female germs two, with two styles on each; nut ovate. There are four species, of which C. betulus, horn-beam, is very common in many parts of England, but is rarely suffered to grow as a timber tree, being generally reduced to pollards by the country people; but where the young trees have been properly treated, they have grown to a large size, nearly seventy feet in height, with large fine stems perfectly straight and sound.

CARPODETUS, in botany, a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class and or der. Essential character; calyx fivetoothed, fastened to the germ; corolla five-petalled; stigma flat-headed; berry globular, five-celled. There is but one species, viz. C. serratus, a native of New Zealand.

CARR, among the ancients, a kind of throne, mounted on wheels, and used in triumphs and other solemn occasions. The carr on medals, drawn by horses, lions, or elephants, signifies a triumph, or an

apotheosis; sometimes a procession of the images of the gods at a solemn supplication; and sometimes of those of some illustrious families at a funeral. The carr, covered and drawn by mules, only signifies a consecration, and the honour done any one of having his image carried at the games of the circute

CARRIAGE, letter or bill of, a writing given to a carrier, or the master of any carriage, containing the number and quality of the pieces, bales, &c. of merchandises, which he is intrusted with, that he may demand the payment of the carriage, and that the person to whom they are addressed may see whether they are delivered in the same number, and in as good condition as they were given to the carrier.

CARRIAGE of a cannon, the frame or timber-work on which it is mounted, serving to point it for shooting, or to carry it from one place to another. It is made of two planks of wood, commonly one half the length of the gun, called the cheeks, and joinedbythree wooden transoms,strengthened with three bolts of iron. It is mounted on two wheels; but on a march has two fore-wheels, with limbers added. The principal parts of a carriage are, the cheeks, transoms, bolts, plates, train bands, bridge, bed, hooks, trunnion holes, and capsquare.

CARRIAGES. This subject, in detail, would form many an ample volume. The great variety of opinions, the imperious demands of locality, and the appropriation to particular purposes, must inevitably create a curious diversity in the practices of a nation. Confining ourselves to general principles, we shall discuss only those points which serve as a general guide, and may prove useful in giving the reader some idea as to the several properties of the vehicles now in use.

1. We consider ease of draught as indispensible. For this purpose the forewheels of a carriage should always be sufficiently large to bring the centre of the axle to an angle, of about fifteen degrees, with that part of the haime, or collar-frame, on which the trace fixes; that being ascertained to be the best relative position between the animal and what he has to draw at.

2. We look to proximity of rotation, that is, the place where the wheel touches the ground, and its relation to a perpendicular draft from the croup of the horse, as being an essential matter: for the draft will assuredly be more oppressive in proportion as the point of rotation is removed. Hence long shafts, great space between the fore and hind wheels, and all the re

presentatives of those primary errors, should be, in toto, abolished.

3. We judge the size of wheels, that is, the length of lever, by which they are moved around their axis, to be of the greatest moment.

4. Where a road is firm, we hold it expedient to reduce the bearing point, namely, the edge of the wheel, into as small a diameter as may be found capable of sustaining the incumbent pressure.

5. Where roads are soft and quaggy, we deem the broad tire to be preferable; both because it bears up the load, and allows of less sinking, whereby considerable opposition would be created; and that such a construction is more favourable to the track in which the carriage may have often to travel.

6. The axis of every wheel ought to move with as little friction as possible: this may be effected by making the spindle as small and as short as circumstances may allow; taking care to lubricate the connecting parts well, so as not to allow of the smallest tendency to adhesion. Wheels intended for travelling over unequal surfaces should be dished, so that the spokes may successively be upright whenever they come under the axle. The bend of each end of the axle downwards is a convenience, and contributes to the foregoing effect, while it causes the upper parts of the wheels to diverge, and gives more scope for the body of the machine: in some instances, where light but bulky burthens are in question, this is a desideratum; though it contracts the space between the points of rotation, and renders the machine more liable to overturn. The load should generally be carried more in the centre of four-wheeled carriages than is usually done. Carmen have a great partiality for burthening the fore-wheels: this is a most absurd practice, because they, being less in diameter, are more subject to be impeded by low obstacles than the hind wheels, which, being larger, travel over ruts and clods with much more facility. In regard to the height of loads, it is proper to state, that whenever a line drawn perpendicular to the horizon, and touching the corner of a square load, touches the ground on the outside of the tire of the opposite wheel, the carriage must overset, the line of gravity then becoming exterior to the support; and vice versa. From this we see, that loads carried low are in general very safe; while such as are injudiciously elevated, which too many of our stagecoaches are, teem with danger. In two wheel carriages, the load in going down