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fprings of action in beings endowed with fenfibility. Even amongst the motives which incite men to acts of religion, the invi fible legiflator has ordained rewards and punishments. From a partial diftribution of thefe, will arife that contradiction, fo little obferved, because so common; I mean, that of punishing by the laws, the crimes which the laws have occafioned. If an equal punishment be ordained for two crimes that injure fociety in different degrees, there is nothing to deter men from committing the greater, as often as it is attended with

greater advantage.-

The foregoing reflections autho. rife me to affert, that crimes are only to be measured by the injury done to fociety.on

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They err, therefore, who ima. gine that a crime is greater or defs, according to the intention of the perfon by whom it is commit. ted for this will depend on the actual impreffion of objects on the fenfes, and on the previous difpofition of the mind; both which will vary in different perfons, and even in the fame perfon at different times, according to the fucceffion, of ideas, paffions, and circumftanees. Upon that fyftem, it would be necessary to form, not only a particular code for every individual, but a new penal law for every crime. Men, often with the beft intention, do the greatest in. jury to fociety, and with the worst, do it the most effential fervices.

Others have estimated crimes ather by the dignity of the perfon offended, than by their confe. quences to fociety. If this were the true ftandard, the fmalleft irreverence to the divine Being ought

to be punished with infinitely more feverity, than the affaffination of a monarch.

In short, others have imagined, that the greatness of the fin fhould aggravate the crime. But the fallacy of this opinion will appear on the lighteft confideration of the relations between man and man, and between God and man: The relations between man and man, are relations of equality. Neceffity alone hath produced, from the oppofition of private paffions and in.. terefts, the idea of public utility, which is the foundation of human juftice. The other are relations of dependance, between an imperfect creature and his creator, the most perfect of beings, who has referved to himfelf the fole right of being both lawgiver, and judge; for he alone can, without injuftice, be, at the fame time, both one and the other. If he hath decreed eternal punishments for those who difobey his will, fhall an infect dare to put himself in the place of divine juftice, or pretend to punish for the Almighty, who is himself all-fufficient; who cannot receive im. preflions of pleasure, or pain, and who alone, of all other beings, acts without being acted upon? The degree of fin depends on the malignity of the heart, which is impenetrable to finite beings. How then can the degree of fin serve as a standard to determine the degree of crimes? If that were admitted, men may punish when God pardons, and pardon when God condemns; and thus act in oppofition to the Supreme Being.a

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We have proved, then, that crimes are to be eftimated by the injury, done to fociety. This is one of thofe palpable truths, which,

though

though evident to the meaneft ca- trary magiftrates, be neceffary in pacity, yet, by a combination of any government, it proceeds from circumftances, are only known to fome fault in the conftitution. The a few thinking men in every na- uncertainty of crimes hath facrition, and in every age, but opi- ficed more victims to fecret tynions, worthy only of the defporanny, than have ever suffered by tifm of Afia, and paffions, armed public and folemn cruelty. with power and authority, have, generally, by infenfible, and fometimes by violent impreffions on the timid credulity of men, effaced thofe fimple ideas, which perhaps conftituted the first philosophy of infant fociety. Happily the philofophy of the prefent enlightened age feems again to conduct us to the fame principles, and with that degree of certainty, which is obtained by a rational examination, and repeated experience.

The opinion, that every member of fociety has a right to do any thing, that is not contrary to the laws, without fearing any other inconveniences, than thofe which are the natural confequences of the action itself, is a political dogma, which should be defended by the laws, inculcated by the magiftrates, and believed by the people; a facred dogma, without which there can be no lawful fociety; a juft recompence for our facrifice of that univerfal liberty of aca tion, common to all fenfible beings, and only limited by our natural powers. By this principle, our minds become free, active, and vigorous; by this alone we are infpired with that virtue which knows no fear, fo different from that pliant prudence, worthy of thofe only who can bear a precarious exiftence.

I do not know of any exception to this general axiom, that Every member of fociety fhould know when he is criminal, and when innocent. If cenfors, and, in general, arbi

What are, in general, the proper punishment for crimes? Is the punishment of death really useful, or neceffary for the fafety, or good order of fociety? Are tortures and torments confiftent with gi tice, or do they answer the end propofed by the laws? Which is the beft method of preventing crimes? Are the fame punishments equally useful at all times? What influence have they on manners? These problems fhould be folved with that geometrical precifion, which the mift of fophiftry, the feduction of eloquence, and the timidity of doubt are unable to refift.

If I have no other merit than that of having first prefented to my country, with a greater degree of evidence, what other nations have written, and are beginning to practife, I fhall account myself for tunate; but if, by fupporting the rights of mankind, and of invinci ble truth, I fhall contribute to fave from the agonies of death one un fortunate victim of tyranny, or of ignorance, equally fatal; his bleff ing and tears of tranfport, will be a fufficient confolation to me for the contempt of all mankind.”

We wish that the extent of our plan could admit of our giving more extracts from this favourite writer; his unbounded philan thropy, and the eloquence and tendernefs which which he pleade the caufe of humanity, muft al ways procure him the most favour able reception.

THE

CONTENT S.

EUROPE.

HISTORY OF EUROPE.

CHA P. I.

General afpect of affairs. Prefent appearances pacific. Some ancient caufes of contention removed. France. Holland. General fate of the North. Germany. Italy. Expulfion of the Jefuits from Naples and Parma. The intereft of the court of Rome declining in Italy. Portugal. Scarcity of corn. Friendly intercourfe fubfifting between the learned.

CHA P. II.

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Strict attention of the government of Sweden to prevent luxury. An im portant law made for enlarging the liberty of the prefs in that kingdom. Denmark. Great preparations making in Ruffia, to obferve the tranfit of the planet Venus over the fun: the Empress writes a letter upon that fubject to the academy at Petersburgh. Deputies from all the provinces of the empire are fummoned to Mofcow, to form a new code of laws. State of affairs in Turkey. Encouragement given by the Grand Seignior, to introduce the art of printing in his dominions. The piratical ftates of Barbary refufe to pay the ancient tribute to the Porte. An infurrection in the province of Montenero.

CHA P. III.

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State of affairs in Poland. Original caufes of the late difputes. Ancient State of that country. Converfion to the Chriftian religion. Acceffion of the great duchy of Lithuania and other provinces to the kingdom of Poland. Ancient fate of the conftitution, of religion, c. Remarkable laws passed by Sigifmund Auguftus, in favour of Chriftians of all denominations. Final VOL. X.

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union of the kingdom of Poland and the great duchy of Lithuavia. The kingdom modelled into a republic, upon the death of Sigifmund Auguftus. The first diet of the republic. A perpetual peace agreed upon between the Diffidents. The original meaning of that term.

CHA P. IV.

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The caufes affigned for the great fuperiority which the Roman Calbote i Poland have acquired over the Greeks and Proteftants, Account of Sigifmund the third. Treaty of Oliva. Edit against the Arians. Conflitu tion of 1717. Oppreffion of the Diffidents in confequence of it. Conftitution of 1736. Confederacies formed by the Diffident nobles. Declaration of the Empress of Ruffia in their favour. Of the King of Pruffia, St. Malecontents. The diet meets: fome of the members arrested by the Ruffians. A commiffion appointed finally to fettle the affairs of the Diffidents.

OSTAT
CHA P. V.

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Spain. Meofures relative to the expulfion of the Jefuits; the caufes ita are affigned for that proceeding. The houses of that fociety in every past of Spain feized by the king's troops; the members arrefted, and their effects Sequestered. The King of Spain's ordinance against the fociety. The Je fuits transported to Croita Vecchia but are not suffered to be landed; from thence they are carried to Corfica. The Jefuits in Mexico, and all the other Spanish colonies, arrefted, and their property feized. Similar meafnrès pur. fued in Naples and Sicily [27

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Of Corfica; its ancient fate granted by a Pope to the republic of Pifa; conquered by the Genoefe; oppreffive and impolitic government of it. The Corficans offer to Jubmit themselves to the Turks. The beginning of the prefent troubles in that ifland; the Prince of Wirtemberg, with an imperial army, compels the malecontents to fubmit. The troubles begin again. Thes dore proclaimed king French army fubdue the island, but upon their de parture the malecontents renew the war with more fury than ever. "Pafchal Pasli declared general of the Corficans, he drives the Gensefe to the fortified towns upon the coafts; and establishes a regular governments The conquest of the island of Capraja. og fl

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Mango in zou vha m, yach Lan kv Great diftreffes of the poor, from the high prices of provisions y riots" and tumults thereupon; feveral of the rioters taken; Special commisions ifssted for their immediate trial. A proclamation against foreftalling; the parliament prorogued; an embargo laid on fhips loaded with acheat. The fate of the Eaft-India Company; great disputes between the members, of it; their affairs become a fubject of general difcuffion Mesage from the miniftry to the court of India directors; a great increase of

di

vidend

Weidend carried by a numerous majority of proprietors. The parliament meet notice taken, in the speech from the throne, of the neceffity that octafund the late exertion of authority, for the prefervation of the public [39 Safety

CHAR VIIL.

A bill of indemnity for thofe concerned in the late embargo, brought in: great debates thereon; the bill paffed. The bill for reftraining all acts of the affembly of New York, brought in and paffed. Land-tax reduced to three billings in the pound. Great debates upon India affairs; propofals made by the company for an accommodation with government; the propofals accepted, and a bill paled for that parpfe. Bill for regulating India dividends; great debates thereon; the bill paffes, and the house breaks usbillia sola to

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CHRONICLE.

Births for the year 1767

44

[46*

F169

[177

172

[174

Marriages

Principal Promotions

Deaths

APPENDIX to the CHRONICLE.

Proteft against the refcinding the East-India dividend

[180

Translation of his Catholic majesty's ordinance for the banishment of the

Jefuits

[185

Abstract of the trial of William Gueft for high treason, in filing, impairing, the current coin of this kingdom

An authentic narrative of the many, horrid cruelties inflicted by Elizabeth Brownrigg upon her apprentice girls

[190

[197

Copy of a letter of her imperial majefty of all the Ruffias, to his excellency count Wolodimer Orlow, director of the academy of Sciences at Peter

burg Copy of a letter from M. Ramaufky, of the imperial academy of Sciences at Mr. Short, of the royal jociety of London.

₤200

[ibid.

etersburgh st A curious account of the great eruption of Mount Vesuvius, on the 19th of ad TO Haber, 1967

[201

An account of the laft honours paid to his royal highness the Duke of York, as Monaco in Italy

[203

Ceremonial of the private interment of his late royal highness the Duke of
York and Albany, in the royal vault in king Henry the VIIth's chapel [204
Some particulars of the life of his late royal highness the Duke of York [207
A narrative of the extraordinary diftreffes which were fuffered at fea, by the-
Jurviving part of the crew of the brig Sally, captain Tabry, bound from
Philadelphia to Hifpaniola

[211

Oliver Cromwell's speech to the members of the long parliament, when he turned them out of the house

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