CONTRASTED ANSWERS TO CERTAIN OF THE PRACTICAL

ANATOMY QUESTIONS.

Describe the course of the medullary fibres, which ascend from the medulla oblongata into the cerebrum and cerebellum. [90]

BY MR. PHILLIPS.

The medullary fibres of the corpus pyramidale of each side anteriorly, partially interlace with each other, then passing through the pons varolii, where they acquire an accession of fibres; they then enter the thalamus, acquiring here a fresh supply of fibres; and from thence pass to the corpora striata; here receiving a considerable reinforcement, they diverge, and are lost in the convolutions: some fibres, however, instead of diverging, converge, and are lost in the corpus callosum. According to Gall, they then converge, and form the commissures: this must be erroneous, as they exist before the convolutions. They are (according to Cloquet) distributed to form the superior and lateral parts of the anterior and middle lobes of the cerebrum. The medullary fibres of the corpora olivaria do not exchange sides, but, passing upwards through the pons varolii, are distributed in forming the inferior part of the anterior and middle lobes, and the whole of the posterior lobes of the cerebrum. The medullary fibres of the corpora restiformia pass into, and are, exclusively distributed to the cerebellum; then, converging, and meeting on the median line, they form the pons.

BY MR. DUCKHAM.

The fibres of the corpora pyramidalia pass from the medulla oblongata into the pons varolii, where they partially decussate; some of the fibres of the left corpus pyramidale going over to the right, whilst some of the right corpus pyramidale go over to the left; they then pass up through the crura cerebri, where they are reinforced, more fibres being added to them by the ganglion or the locus niger of the crus cerebri; they then pass into the thalamus nervi optici, or inferior great ganglion of the cerebrum, where, being again reinforced, they pass into the corpus striatum, or superior great ganglion, where more fibres are added to them. They then pass up to the surface of the brain, where, according to Gall, they terminate; but it has been proved, that some turn inwards and downwards, again to form the corpus callosum. The corpora olivaria do not decussate, but follow the course of the corpora pyramidalia. The corpora restiformia do not pass into the pons varolii, but pass directly to the cerebellum, become reinforced at the corpus dentatum, or ganglion of the cerebellum, and pass on to the surface.

BY MR. JONES.

The fibres of the corpora pyramidalia and olivaria expand to form the brain, the fibres of the two former bodies partially interlacing. The fibres first enter the pons varolii, and are there reinforced by some grey matter. Emerging in greater number, they enter the crura of the cerebrum, and are further strengthened by the grey matter called locus niger. They next enter the thalami, or inferior great ganglia, of the brain, and then the corpora striata, or superior great ganglia of the brain. Coming out from these, they are lost in the convolutions of the cerebrum. This system constitutes the diverging system of Gall.

The fibres converge from the surface of the hemispheres towards the centre, and form the different commissures, as the corpus callosum, anterior and posterior commissures, &c. The fornix is formed by the convergence of the inferior fibres.

The fibres passing up from the corpora restiformia diverge to form the cerebellum. They first enter the corpus rhomboideum; and, being reinforced, spread out into the arbor vitæ forming the cerebellum. The converging fibres constitute the pons varolii.

Describe the nasal cavity as it presents itself in the dried skull. [30]

The nasal cavity is situated at the middle and superior part of the face, and inferior part of the cranium, between the orbits, above the cavity of the mouth, between the cavities of the antrum. Its roof is formed by the nasal bones looking backwards and downwards; the cribiform plate of the ethmoid horizontally; the body of the sphenoid bone looking downwards and forwards. Its floor by the palatal processes of the superior maxillary and palate bones; its outer wall, by the nasal process of the maxillary and spongy bones; its inner wall, by the nasal spine of the frontal, perpendicular plate of ethmoid, vomer, and the spine formed by the junction of the bones forming the floor. It is subdivided into meatus, generally four in number: the first formed by the cribiform plate of the ethmoid superiorly, and the superior spongy bone inferiorly; the second between the superior and middle spongy bones-it forms a cul de sac in front, and has entering into it the sphenoidal sinuses and posterior ethmoid cells; the third between the middle and inferior spongy, has communicating with it the infundibulum, (the communication of the anterior ethmoidal cells, and frontal sinuses), and the antrum of Highmore; the fourth between the inferior spongy bone and floor of the cavity, and has entering it, the nasal duct, and posteriorly the Eustachian tube.

BY MR. DUCKHAM.

It is placed between the palatine processes of the superior maxillary bones and palate bones below, and the ethmoid and sphenoid bones above. Its roof is formed by the sphenoid, ethmoid, and nasal bones, being about three inches long, and very narrow. Its floor is formed by the palatine processes of the superior maxillary, the inferior, superior, and middle spongy bones, and the ascending portion of the palate bones; and posteriorly it is formed by the internal pterygoid processes of the sphenoid bone. The internal wall is formed by the vomer, the azygos process of the sphenoid, and the spinous processes of the superior maxillary and palate bones below, by the spine of the nasal bones above, and by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone.

BY MR. JONES.

The nasal cavity lies between the orbits and above the mouth. It is divided into fosse by a septum. The roof of this cavity is formed posteriorly by the body of the sphenoid, in the middle by the cribriform plate of the ethmoid, and anteriorly by the nasal bone. The external side is formed by the nasal process of the frontal bone, the ascending process of the superior maxillary, the inferior spongy bone, the palate bone, and the internal lamina of the pterygoid prccess.

The septum is formed by the rostrum, the vomer, the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid, the spines of the palate, superior maxillary, frontal, and nasal bones. The floor is formed by the horizontal plate of the superior maxillary and palate bones. On the external wall are observed certain passages or meatus. The

inferior meatus is formed between the floor and the inferior spongy bone, and into it opens the nasal duct. The middle meatus exists between the inferior and middle spongy bones, and into it open the anterior ethmoidal cells, the antrum Highmorianum, and the frontal sinuses. The superior meatus does not extend the whole length anteriorly. Into it open the posterior ethmoidal cells, the sphenoidal sinuses, and the spanopalatine foramen.

Describe the lungs in the following order :-Definition of them. [5.] Situation. [5.] Consistency. [5.] Colour. [5.] Shape. [5.] Relations. [5.] Surfaces. [5.] Division into lobes. [5.] Vessels. [5.] Structure. [5.] BY MR. PHILLIPS.

The lungs are two soft, spongy bodies of a conoidal form, crepitous and cellular to the touch, and modified so as to afford an immense extent of surface for the oxygenation of the blood, or some other change. They are situated in the cavity of the thorax, on either side of the vertebral column.

To the touch they are spongy, and crepitous, and soft, possessing less specific gravity than any other solid organ.

Their colour, in infancy, is somewhat of a bright red; they afterwards become greyish, and about the age of twelve, studded with a number of irregularly circumscribed blackish spots, supposed to be produced by a secretion from the bronchial glands. In old age they become more livid. Their shape is that of a cone, a little flattened, from before backwards, hollowed in the middle for the reception of the pericardium.

The base varies, accommodating itself to the motions of the diaphragm. They are related superiorly with the vertebral artery, at the base of the neck, which would almost appear to present a mechanical obstacle to their further ascent.

Inferiorly with the diaphragm.

Externally with the wall of the thorax. Their internal surface is in contact with the pericardium. Their anterior border is thin, overlapping the pericardium, and approaching its fellow on the opposite side The posterior border is thick, corresponding to the space between the vertebral column and tubercle of rib. Their surfaces are bedewed with a serous exhalation from the pleura, and you may recognize on it, beside the dark patches, some lozenge-shaped lines, whitish, and marking the separation of the lobules.

The right lung is divided by a fissure, proceeding from its anterior-inferior border into lobes, the superior of which is again subdivided by a fissure into two lobes.

The left lung has merely one fissure passing from the inferior internal border outwards and upwards, and divided it into two lobes.

The left lung appears to lose part of its transverse diameter by the interposition of the heart.

The right appears to lose part of its length by being pushed up by the liver, so that they are nearly equal in size, the right being rather largest.

The vessels of the lungs are the pulmonary and bronchial vessels.

The right bronchus passes nearly horizontally from the bifurcation of the trachea, until it enters the lung opposite the fourth dorsal vertebrae. The left passes more vertically.

The lung appears to be formed of the aggregation of a series of lobules, united to each other by cellular tissue, which is derived from the neck surrounding the trachea; they do not communicate with each other. The formation of these lobules, according to the analogy which we derive from comparative anatomy, is as follows.

The ultimate radicles of the bronchi distend themselves, forming an areola of cells, into these pass a minute radicle of the pulmonary artery, which is submitted to the atmospheric air contained in the cells, and from it after the change has been effected are returned the radicles of two veins.* Thus, in obedience to a general law, the organ is formed by the aggregation of smaller organs, each equally perfect with the whole.

The communication between these vessels, however affected, is most complete. If a fluid be injected into either of these vessels, it passes readily into all the rest.

The bronchi are supposed to be lined even to their ultimate destination by mucous membrane.

BY MR. DUCKHAM.

:

The lungs are two spongy organs, placed in the cavity of the thorax, in each side of the spine, separated by the pericardium and heart. In the foetus they are very consistent; after birth they become spongy; towards old age they become more consistent, owing to the apoplectic tendency of old age. In the young child they are reddish, but, about the tenth or eleventh year, they become greyish, aud mottled. They are convex externally, concave internally, concave and large below, coming nearly to a point above, presenting a thick border posteriorly, a thin one anteriorly in contact externally with the pleura costalis and ribs, internally with the pleura costalis and ribs, internally with the pericardium and posterior mediastinum; below, with the diaphragm; above with the scaleni muscles. They are of a conical shape. They present an external convex surface, an internal concave surface, and an inferior concave surface. The right is divided into three, the left into two lobes; the inferior posterior lobe is the largest: their vessels are the pulmonary artery and veins, the bronchial artery and vein. They are composed of the divisions of the pulmonary arteries and veins, the bronchial artery and vein, branches of the pulmonic plexus of nerves, air cells composed of a fibrous and mucous membrane and lymphatics, all united with very fine cellular tissue.

BY MR. JONES.

The lungs are two spongy crepitating bodies, situated on either side of the vertebral column, in the cavity. of the thorax. Their consistency varies at the different periods of life. Previous to birth, they are dense, and sink in water. After birth they are light, crepitating, and swim in water. In old age they again become dense. The colour of the lungs varies at the different periods of life. In the foetus they are of a reddish colour; at the age of twelve or fourteen they become spotted with gray, and eventually become very dark.

The shape of the lungs is somewhat that of a cone. The apex is situated superiorly, and rises above the clavicle for upwards of two inches, pushing the pleura before it. The base is concave and plane, according to the state of respiration. It is related to the convexity of the diaphragm. The external surface is convex and related to the walls of the thorax. The internal surface is concave, and related to the pericardium, aorta, and vertebral column.

These lobulus are somewhat conoidal, their base being directed towards the circumference, their apex towards the bronches from which they arise.

The posterior border is rounded, and situated in the groove between the vertebral column and angles of the ribs. It is usually denser than other parts, from the gravitation of the blood after death. The anterior margin is thin, and overlaps the heart. The left lung is divided into two lobes by a fissure extending upward and outward from the apex of the heart.

The right lung is divided into three lobes, there being a middle lobe corresponding, as it were, to the heart. The vessels of the lungs are, the air tubes, or bronchia, the pulmonary arteries, the bronchial arteries, the pulmonary and bronchial veins.

The structure of the lungs is very complex. It is composed of the ramifications of the above-mentioned vessels, of nerves and lymphatics, bound up in cellular tissue. Each division of the bronchi becoming Ceuete, lose the cartilaginous rings which are observed upon the trachea, and expand into a fibrous bag. This fibrous bag is lined by the mucous membrane, which forms septa in its interior, constituting the proper air cells. There enters into each cell a branch of the pulmonary artery, and another of the bronchial artery. Coming out of it there are two branches of the pulmonary vein and a bronchial vein. Nerves also enter the cells. Around each fibrous bag there is cellular tissue. The lungs are thus composed of a number of lobules, or lungs in miniature. The air cells are quite distinct from the cells of the inter-lobular cellular tissue. The nerves of the lungs come from the posterior and anterior pulmonic plexus. The posterior is the larger. The nerves entering into the formation of these plexus are, the pneumo-gastric branches from the cardiac plexus, branches from the recurrent laryngeal and superior theoracic and inferior cervical ganglia.

CONTRASTED ANSWERS TO CERTAIN OF THE MATERIA MEDICA QUESTIONS.

What is white arsenic? By what chemical properties is it distinguished? and what are its effects on the system when it is taken into the stomach in an over-dose? [10.]

BY ROBERT GARNER.

White arsenic is an oxide possessing the properties of an acid, composed of one equivalent of metal and two equivalents of oxygen. It is distinguished by forming Scheele's green with the ammoniaco sulphate of copper-a yellow precipitate with the ammoniaco-nitrate of silver: a white precipitate with lime water a yellow precipitate with sulphuretted hydrogen. Its effects, as a poison, are constriction in the throat, vomiting, purging, pain in the stomach and gripings, bloody stools, delirium, insensibility, with syncope, and death. The body is said to run into very rapid putrefaction.

BY FREDERICK DUCKHAM.

It is a compound of oxygen and metallic arsenic, one proportion of each: it is called arsenious acid: it is distinguished by its burning with a white flame in chlorine gas, and by its emitting an alliaceous odour when thrown on burning coals, owing to the metal being reduced it is highly poisonous, inducing violent retchings, with vomiting and purging of blood matter; it acts principally on the stomach and intestines, but Mr. Brodie has proved that it also acts on the nervous system.

BY GEORGE ATKINSON.

White arsenic is, chemically, arsenious acid, or the metallic arsenic combined with an inferior proportion of oxygen. As an acid, consequently, it affords a slight acid reaction to Litmus paper. When given in an over-dose (say, a few grains) it soon produces pain, and a burning sensation in the stomach, followed by sickness, paleness, and anxiety of the countenance, along with these symptoms, a burning sensation in the fauces. Then come on convulsions, cold extremities and death. It does not produce these effects, however, like corrosive sublimate, by a direct chemical union with the coats of the stomach, but exerts a destructive energy on the vital powers of the organ, producing inflammation of the same; which, in most instances, is observed to be intermingled with darkish-red spots. The inflammation thus set up by its rapid extension, is the cause of fatality.

How is its presence in the stomach detected when it has been taken as a poison and has proved fatal? [20.]

BY ROBERT GARNER.

In the last answer the tests for white arsenic are enumerated. To satisfy a jury I should boil the contents, or substance, of the stomach. Filter the solution. Pass sulphuretted hydrogen through it, collect the precipitate, dry it, and reduce to the metallic state by black flux.

BY FREDERICK DUCKHAM.

The stomach and its contents should be boiled with water, acidulated with a little acetic acid; on adding to a little of this solution, a solution of ammoniaco-sulphate of copper, if arsenic is present a green colour is produced; on drawing a line with the solution upon paper, and tracing it with a stick of nitrate of silver, a yellow colour is produced; the same is also produced by phosphoric acid; but they are distinguished by ammonia which destroys the colour produced by the phosphoric acid, but does not affect the one produced by the arsenic. But the best test is to precipitate by sulphuretted hydrogen, and by mixing it with a little black flux in a glass tube, to sublime the metal.

BY GEORGE ATKINSON.

When a person has died suspected of having taken arsenic, the contents of the stomach should be carefully collected, and boiled for half an hour in a gentle heat, so as to obtain the solution of whatever substances may be present. Provided then there be a sufficient quantity of this solution for experiment, the operator may take a small portion of it and test with the ammoniaco-sulphate of copper. Observing the caution first of all of preparing these tests, so as to have no excess of the ammonia or acid present, which would dissolve the compound. In the one case a yellow and the other a green precipitate (Scheele's green) will be formed. And both these tests agreeing will afford presumptive proof at least of the presence of arsenic. As, however, a source of fallacy may arise with respect to ammoniaco-nitrate of silver, and phosphate of soda will produce with it a similar yellow precipitate. The next test to be resorted to is sul

phuretted hydrogen, which may be easily procured by the action of heat on sulphuret of iron with sulphuric acid, a tube bent at double angles being employed to convey the gas into a second vessel containing water by which it is absorbed. Some of the suspected solution being added to the solution of sulphuretted hydrogen a yellow solution will be produced, which is the sulphuret of arsenic.

In addition to these tests, provided a powder can be obtained by evaporation of the suspected solution, or supposing it to be found in the stomach, a portion of this should be mixed in a small glass tube with a flux, easily prepared by acting with heat on a mixture of nitre and supertartrate of potash. These being mixed, the heat of a spirit lamp is to be applied, and if arsenic be present, it will pass over, by sublimation, into the neck of the glass tube, and collect there, forming a brilliant metallic coating. The oxygen of the arsenious acid being absorbed by the flux. The evidence of the presence of arsenic will thus be complete. What is the cause of the leaden hue, which the internal administration of nitrate of silver sometimes communicates to the skin? Describe the manner in which it is effected, the changes that take place in the chemical composition of the nitrate, and in what part of the system these changes happen. [50.]

BY ROBERT GARNER.

While the nitrate is in the circulation it is under the control of the vital influence, but when it gets to the skin it is subject to chemical affinities. The skin exhales muriate of soda and sulphuretted hydrogen. The effect of light is to blacken muriate of silver.

BY FREDERICK DUCKHAM.

When nitrate of silver is taken into the stomach, it is carried into the circulation, and having arrived at the skin, it there meets with a muriate, which decomposes it, forming an insoluble muriate of silver, which becomes blackened by exposure to light; and being insoluble is never taken up by the absorbents; this is the cause of the leaden hue; it might be prevented by administering with the nitrate of silver a little nitric acid which would prevent the muriate being formed; or, if already formed, it is most probable that the administration of the carbonate of ammonia would effect its absorption; the muriate of silver being soluble in ammonia.

BY GEORGE ATKINSON.

Concerning the question of the cause of the leaden hue in the skin, produced by the nitrate of silver, there exists much diversity of opinion, as there is known to be muriatic acid in the stomach; some have said the silver, leaving the nitric acid, unites with the muriatic acid, forming muriate of silver; and that this is absorbed and deposited under the cuticle. As, however, the muriate of silver is insoluble, and a white substance, it could not be absorbed nor deposit a black colour under the skin. The more probable view, therefore, is, that the nitrate of silver, (like nitrate of potash, going to the kidney) passes undecomposed into the blood and is carried to the surface of the body, where it is decomposed by the hydrogen and sulphur which it meets with in the exhalent vessels, and there deposited so as to produce the leaden hue which is sometimes seen in patients who have taken this remedy.

HINTS FOR THE FUTURE IMPROVEMENT OF THE EXAMINATION OF THE MEDICAL CLASSES.

THE main object of examination is not to find out the most worthy individuals, inasmuch as it is almost impossible to arrive at such a knowledge by any examinations that can be devised; but, to stimulate, if possible, all men to strenuous exertion, so that all may, at least, approach towards the perfection, which long experience assures us can only be attained by few. To secure such general exertion, a few precautions are necessary: in the first place, some temporary reward must be held out for the purpose of cheering on the competitors. This object may be obtained by the donation of books, medals, or certificates; but, nothing proves so great a lure to the young and ambitious mind, as the hope of having honour conferred upon it in Public. How often have we known at the recognised Universities this hope of being first led up in the theatre or the senate-house, carry a man, even of ordinary talent, through the terrible fatigue of three years intense application, and finally triumphantly lead up the pale victim of ambition to be crowned with the highest honours: and, although it may be urged, that the minds of most are harassed, in an equal proportion, by their failure, yet, it must be remembered, that, invariably, one half of those who have been induced to strive for the honours, are valuable members of society, while all have gained so good a foundation for the building of a future superstructure, that they will rarely become unfit for any situation of ordinary importance in society. It is true, that the thought, that but one or a few individuals can be crowned with success may, sometimes, have a tendency to discourage the timid and the modest from entering into the contention. To remove this impression from the mind, it is necessary, that all the competitors should be made acquainted with the nature of the examination, with the mode in which it is secured, that no favour shall be displayed, even accidentally, to any of the candidates; in fact, that the whole process of the examination be made fully public. When the pupil is in possession of this information, when he finds, that all the men are placed on the same footing, many of the difficulties vanish from his view, and he does not hesitate to try his strength. Thus is the great object of the examination, namely, the increase of exertion on the part of the pupil, best attained.

We think we may congratulate our fellow pupils that so fair a mode has already been adopted; a plan, which is certainly a decided improvement upon those hitherto employed. The decided improvements in the mode of examination are these:

1. The printing of the questions;

2. The attaching a value to each question;

3. The stating of the required aggregate value of the answers which will secure an honour ;

4. The awarding the honour to a motto, rather than to a name;

5. The allowing the answers to be given in writing.

Yet, nevertheless, this plan is still not perfect, and, we would fain that one or two alterations should yet be made in this well-conceived scheme. We would wish, then, that the questions should not be put by the Professor himself, although they should be revised by him, and we should also wish, that the Professor should not examine the answers given by his own class. Lastly, we would have it a rule, that no more questions should be asked than can reasonably be expected to be answered in the allotted time. by any student who may have entered for the first time into a course of lectures. With these additional securities, we see no further mode, in which the student may be protected. While, by such an examination, all impartial men must be convinced of the degree of power of commanding acquirement on the instant, possessed by the various individuals. Trusting that these suggestions will be appreciated in the quarter to which they are directed, we cordially thank our professors for the very great improvement in this department of the institution, to which they have at this early stage of its existence, secured a boon, which will be the greatest prop of the institution.

[43.]

A TABLE

EXHIBITING THE NATURE, PRICES, AND PERIODS OF THE LECTURES TO BE DELIVERED AT THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON DURING THE ENSUING SESSION.

STUDENTS are to enter their names previously to the commencement of the Classes, and all fees are to paid at the office of the University. Students nominated by a Proprietor must bring a written nomination, but no particular form is necessary. Those, who during the last Session were nominees of Proprietors, are not required to renew their nomination. Students not nominated by Proprietors, pay an addition to the fees, stated below, according to the following scale; viz. If the Class-Fee be 17., an addition of 5s., if 2l., 10s., and so forth but this extra payment ceases so soon as it amounts to 41. 10s. Students who are matriculated, pay a fee of 21., and are exempt from further payment, ou this head, for four years. Occasional Students pay annually a fee of 10s., for one Class, and 17. for two or more Classes. Students are at liberty to select the Classes they wish to attend; but the Courses recommended to those who are beginning their general academical education, are, LATIN, GREEK, MATHEMATICS, and ENGLISH. The hours are so arranged that the Classes for the French, or German languages may be attended at the same time with the Classes for Latin, Greek, and Mathematics. Where Junior and Senior clesses are opened in the same department of instruction, if Students who have entered for the Senior Class, are found upon examination not to be sufficiently advanced for it, they will be required to join the Junior Class.

It is recommended, that no Student should enter, who is under fifteen years of age; if any one should present himself under that age, he must be examined by the Professor, and declared to be fit for the Class which he proposes to enter, before he can be admitted.

An opinion having prevailed, that instruction at the University is conveyed by Lectures only, it is proper to state, that in all the Classes, there is a direct communication between the Professor and his pupil, by examination and exercises; and where languages are taught, the instruction is conveyed principally in the way of interrogation and written exercises, and only incidentally by continuous Lectures. The Junior Classes of the modern languages are adapted to mere beginners.

We have much satisfaction in announcing that the Right Hon. C. W. Williams Wynn, has most liberally placed at the disposal of the Council, his nomination to an AssistantSurgeoncy, in the service of the East India Company. The Council will, before the end of the Session, declare the qualifications necessary for competitors for this appointment, so far