"Each within each, old Nature's changeless law," with any thing so unnecessary as this duplicate machinery? It is considered unphilosophical for the pioneers of science to suppose any cause, or combination of causes, with which we are not acquainted, whilst those with which we are acquainted suffice to explain the effects. Now, we are not acquainted with any "antagonist essences.' We know that the presence of water produces the effect we call wetness; but I do not think any one ever considered it necessary to suppose, and I am sure no one ever discovered, any opposing element to account for the opposite effect, "dryness;" on the contrary, we consider it to arise from the absence of water. Now, let us apply this knowledge which we derive from what is within our reach, to what are at present out of our reach, heat and light—and, as they are supposed to be similar to water in one respect, fluidity, we are fully authorised to infer, while facts do not contradict us, that they may be similar to it in others. Let us suppose darkness to be the absence of light, and coldness of heat-are there any facts that can contradict such a theory? hear of "darkness spreading," and this looseness of language has probably contributed to the idea of darkness being a substantive entity, not a mere negation. But has no one ever seen "dryness spreading ?" Has no one ever looked on the pavement after a shower, and seen, first, a little speck of white stone make its appearance, then a larger spot, and then, by slow degrees, the spots increase and increase till they run into one another, and all vestige of damp disappears? Yet, in this case we merely imagine that the one agent, water, has retired before other causes, air, heat, &c., not that second agent, dryness, has stepped in to drive it out of the field. Why then should we invent an antagonist principle to account for the effect, when heat or light retires before some other elemental agent? Surely the absence, more or less complete, of one single cause will be sufficient to explain all known phenomena of each of these duplicate effects, and if so, why

any

We

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suppose a second? And adopting "Z.'s" idea of atomic vibration being the radical cause of all elemental changes, let us suppose such vibration in some imponderable fluid to constitute light, then quiescence of the same fluid would be darkness: and as absolute darkness is probably not within our scope (if indeed existent at all,) then the small degree of vibration which is sufficient to affect our eyes, and which, therefore, we look upon as quiescence or darkness, may be best suited to certain photic effects as a very low degree of galvanic energy is to certain chemical effects. The same may be said of heat and of electricity (or galvanism), and there certainly is no reason why they should not owe their origin to three distinct fluids (which would be the theory of “Z,” if he could persuade himself to resign his antagonist essences,) but at the same time, there is such an intimate connexion between them that I cannot help looking upon them as three different effects of one and the same cause acting under different circumstances. I will not, however, enter upon this subject, as my intention was only to warn your young readers against what I consider so erroneous a notion as that of

The Self-loading Cart has been lately brought into operation in the town of Manchester, where it has excited a considerable degree of public attention. It is the invention of Mr. Whitworth, of the firm of Messrs. Joseph Whitworth and Co., engineers, by whom it has been patented, and is now in process of manufacture. The principle of the invention consists in employing the rotary motion of locomotive wheels, moved by horse or other power, to raise the loose soil from the surface of the ground, and deposit it in a vehicle attached.

It will be evident that the self-loading principle is applicable to a variety of purposes. Its most important application, however, is to the cleaning of streets and roads. The apparatus for this purpose consists of a series of brooms suspended from a light frame of wrought-iron, hung behind a common cart, the body of which is placed as near the ground as possible, for the greater facility of loading. As the cart-wheels revolve, the brooms successively sweep the surface of the ground, and carry the soil up an inclined plane, at the top of which it falls into the body of the cart.

The apparatus is extremely simple in construction, and will have no tendency to get out of order, nor will it be liable to material injury from accident. The draught is not severe on the horse. Throughout the process of filling, a larger amount of force is not required than would be necessary to draw the full cart an equal distance.

The success of the operation is no less remarkable than its novelty. Proceeding at a moderate speed through the public streets, the cart leaves behind it a well-swept track, which forms a striking contrast with the adjacent ground. Though of the full size of a common cart, it has repeatedly filled itself, in the space of six minutes, from the principal thoroughfares of the town before mentioned. This fact, while it proves the efficiency of the new apparatus, proves also the necessity for a change in the present system of street-cleaning.

The state of the streets in our large towns, and particularly in the metropolis, it must be admitted, is far from satisfactory. It is productive of serious hindrance to traffic, and a vast amount of public inconvenience. The evil does not arise from the want of a liberal expenditure on the part of the local authorities. In the township of Manchester, the annual outlay for scavenging is upwards of 5,000. This amount is expended in the township alone. In the remaining districts of the town the expense is considerable. Other towns are burdened in an equal, or still greater proportion. Yet, notwithstanding the amount of outlay, the effective work done is barely one-sixth part of what would be necessary to keep the public streets in proper order. In the district before referred to, they were a short time ago distributed into the following classes, according to the frequency of cleaning them :-class A, once a week; B, once a fortnight; C, once a month. It may be safely asserted, that all these streets should be swept, at least, six times oftener. The main thoroughfares, as well as the back streets and confined courts, crowded with the poorer part of the population, absolutely require cleaning out daily.

But the expense already incurred effectually prevents a more frequent repetition of the process. The expensiveness of the present system, in fact, renders it altogether inefficient; nor is there any chance of material improvement in this important department of public police, unaccompanied by a corresponding reduction in the rate of expendi

ture.

Before proceeding to show in how remarkable a degree the self-loading cart is adapted to promote both these objects, it may be proper to notice an objection which has been urged against it, as calculated to deprive of the means of livelihood the numerous class of persons now employed in scavenging. The sequel will furnish an answer to this objection, which probably every reader will consider satisfactory. It will show that the interest of all classes is concerned in a change of system. With a view, however, to meet the prejudice which might otherwise prevent certain parties from giving the subject a fair consideration, it may be premised that, among all the cases wherein existing interests have been affected by the introduction of machinery, there is not one in which the objection could carry so little force. The occupation of a scavenger is proverbially the lowest in the social scale, and is universally regarded with a sentiment of compassion for those who have the misfortune to hold it. It is often the compulsory lot of paupers; and there is sometimes extreme hardship in the public exposure. When held by independent labourers, it cannot fail to induce a sense of degradation, akin to that which attends the receipt of public alms, and constitutes the essential hardship of parish relief. They have the toil and the wages of labour, without its reward. Nor is their present tenure of service secure. In bad times they must compete with paupers; both classes are sacrificed to the interests of the parish. In better times, both classes have the same opportunity, as they have a similar motive, to change, and thereby improve their condition. It ought, therefore, to be regarded as a circumstance in favour of the new system, that it will tend to restrict such an application of human labour. Nor ought it to be overlooked, that the ultimate effect, in all probability, will be, to provide a superior kind of employment for an equal number of men, when the benefit arising from the use of the patent apparatus has secured its general adoption, not only in towns, but upon all roads throughout the country.

The process of street-cleaning consists of three parts, viz., sweeping, loading, and carrying. Under the present system, these are entirely distinct operations. Each of

them constitutes a protracted and expensive process; and the two former absorb a large amount of human labour. By the aid of the self-loading cart, one horse is enabled to perform all the three processes, which are not only carried on simultaneously, but, as it were, blended in one operation; whilst each is so far simplified, as to render the combination less complex and protracted than the single process of either sweeping or loading by the present mode.

By the present mode of sweeping, the dirt is first moved from the centre to the sides of the street, and there collected into heaps for convenience in loading. An immense amount of time and labour is thus consumed; the mass of dirt being moved over a wide extent of surface, and the operation of cleaning continually retarded by the accumulation. It is calculated that each particle, on the average, moves through twenty feet of space before the operation of loading commences, and that the preparatory sweeping for each load consumes the greater part of a day's

labour.

Here the advantage of the patent apparatus is self-evident. It entirely supersedes the whole process just referred to. The dirt, instead of being swept from one part of the street to another, is swept at once into the cart, and the street is cleared effectually. The operation of sweeping, in fact, merges into that of loading, and both are performed without the intervention of human labour. When going at the rate of only 2 miles per hour, with brooms 3 feet wide, the patent apparatus will clean nearly 60 superficial square yards per minute. This is about the average rate of work done by 36 men. Supposing the apparatus to work 5 hours per day, it would clean 18,000 yards, equal to the performance of 18 men.*

While the apparatus is thus calculated to abridge human labour, it will have the effect also of reducing the number of carts and horses now required to perform a given quantity of work. The time at present occupied in loading and carrying is considerable, in consequence of those operations being performed under very unfavourable circumstances. That of loading must be suspended during the progress of the cart from one station to another, and, consequently, is perpetually interrupted. Horse and men are stopped and started, alternately, at short intervals, whereby a continual waste is occasioned, both of time and force. The opera

• In the township of Manchester, 22,000,000 yards were swept during the year 1841. 60 sweepers and 20 carters were employed, of whom, say 67 were constantly occupied in sweeping or loading. This would give 1,000 yards per man per day. The lahour of paupers is found not to be so effective.

23

tion of the self-loading cart, on the contrary, is uniform and uninterrupted. Hence, though taking less in width, it will go over double the extent of surface included in the progress made by the present cart during the same time. Moreover, the diminished time occupied in loading is made available also for the purpose of carrying. By the present mode, the cart must stand idle while being filled; whereas the patent cart not only combines the operations of sweeping and loading, but performs both in the act of moving forward to the place of deposit. Nor is this all; it also economizes the time now spent in carting away and returning empty. Under the present system, owing to the great width of surface from which the sweepings are collected, the cart cannot travel far without being filled, and hence the time is principally occupied in carrying merely. Probably two-thirds of the whole time of carts, horses, and drivers are thus consumed, even where the places of deposit are adjacent. But the patent cart, taking less in width, (as before observed,) will proceed proportionally further before it is full. If the street be twenty yards wide, (the brooms being one yard,) it must go ten times further, and would reach a distant point by the time it was completely filled. Hence, it may be practicable to make such provision for deposit within or near the district, as will save all the time now consumed in carrying. A very moderate number of depôts would suffice for this purpose. If the streets were kept clean by frequent sweeping in dry weather, the yards might be advantageously placed more than a mile apart, and the cart, passing from one to another, would continually carry on its threefold operation. If the requisite number of depots could not be provided within or near the district, the apparatus might still be kept in continual action, by being transferred from one cart to another. It forms of itself a distinct and complete machine; and nothing more would be necessary for the above purpose, than to detach it from the full cart and apply it to an empty one.

Under any circumstances, it will have the effect of reducing the number of carts and horses now required for a given effect, besides doing all the work in sweeping and loading. It might be supposed, from the extra duty thrown on the horse, that an increase of horse-power would be necessary; but it is to be remembered that, under the present system, the horse works at a great disadvantage: his force is spent in alternately starting and stopping, standing idle, and drawing the empty cart. Supposing such provision made for deposit as would keep all the carts constantly occupied in sweeping, two horses might be allowed to

each, by way of relay for one another; but this would scarcely be necessary under other circumstances.

The amount of human labour necessary to give full effect to the patent apparatus is extremely limited. A driver will, of course, be required for each cart; also, a man to attend each yard; and a third to keep open the grids, and clear the gutters, by sweeping their contents within the range of the cart brooms. For the latter purpose, one man to each apparatus would be sufficient.

Besides the direct economy of manual labour and horse-power, the use of the selfloading cart will be attended with other advantages, not unworthy of notice. Owing to the complication of the present system, it is unwieldy in the management. The different processes, though distinct, are mutually dependent, and must be adjusted to each other. The number of sweepers must be in a certain proportion to the number and return of the carts, that the operation of loading may follow immediately on that of sweeping. It is true that this object is rarely accomplished; but the mere attempt, which is compulsory by fine, involves a superfluous outlay, and tends to perplex the whole management. The improved system will be entirely free from this cause of embarrassment, each cart acting independently, and having in connexion with itself all the necessary accessories.

Again, under the present system, it is highly inconvenient to clean locally, according to the actual state of the surface. In order to clean a part of the street, it is necessary to sweep the whole, though a considerable portion of the surface may not require the operation. It is towards the centre that the dirt chiefly accumulates, while the sides remain comparatively clear, until, by the perverse operation of the present method, the sweepings are collected there, to the great annoyance of passengers. The self-loading cart, by passing occasionally through the street, over the more central parts, will tend to preserve it in an uniform state through

out.

The mutual obstruction created to scavenging operations and public traffic is the source of much inconvenience under the present system. This is so great, that in the metropolis it is necessary to clean the main streets during the night. In this respect, the patent cart possesses an important advantage. It will pass through the most crowded thoroughfares without meeting or causing obstruction, doing its work as perfectly as if the street were empty. The importance of this circumstance is greater than would at first sight appear. In the principal thoroughfares, a vast quantity of manure is

continually deposited; and, if it could be taken up immediately, not only would the main streets be kept clear, to the great benefit of traffic, but the untrodden manure would become valuable for agricultural purposes. By a little attention in sorting and mixing with ashes, the sweepings now taken from the streets are rendered saleable for manure. But, of the matter deposited, which constitutes the essential part of street manure, one half is removed by a numerous class of persons who now make it a trade, and the other half is much trodden and depreciated before it can be collected. The diligence with which these adventurers pursue the traffic, and the eagerness with which they rescue the newly-fallen product, is sufficient evidence both of its intrinsic and ephemeral value. The self-loading cart will accomplish completely what they can do only partially; and it will not be the least among the advantages resulting from its introduction, that it will rid the public streets of a class of persons in constant collision with the police, and whom their occupation seems to have a necessary tendency to demoralize. It is, then, in the most crowded thoroughfares that the patent cart will act with the greatest advantage-where it may be kept constantly plying to collect manure. For the same purpose it may be passed once, or oftener, in the day, through every street, following the track of the manure happening to lie there. By this method, the whole surface of each street would be cleaned periodically.

The diminished rate of expenditure, combined with the increased value of the matter collected, will secure the efficient operation of the new system, and render the constant preservation of cleanliness an object as easy of attainment as it is full of importance to the health and comfort of all classes. What greater public nuisance can exist than that created by a mass of filth lying exposed in the public thoroughfares? By accumulating there, it becomes universally diffused. It is propagated by every passenger, and carried into the interior of every dwelling, producing innumerable annoyances, from which it is impossible to escape. The air itself becomes impregnated with noxious effluvia, whereby the whole neighbourhood is rendered unwholesome. This is more particularly the case in confined situations, and in cellars and apartments on the basement story, which draw their supply of air from the surface of the street.

Were the evil subdued in its first origin, the remedy would be more easily applied, and the injurious consequences altogether prevented. If the streets were kept in proper order, the rain, as it fell, would have a

tendency to cleanse them; whereas it has now the frequent effect of rendering them impassable, while the matter to be removed is increased three-fold in quantity. In the opposite state of dry weather, the clouds of dust which arise are among the greatest annoyances to which passengers, or persons resident in adjacent dwellings, can be subjected. The happy invention of the watering-cart, which has contributed so essentially to the comfort and refreshment of populous towns, has its operation and effect impaired by the same cause.*

The evil is one which affects all classes, but more especially the poorer. In the confined streets, where they chiefly reside, the accumulation of filth becomes an aggravated physical evil, and the direct source of moral injury. The higher ranks of life are beyond the reach of this peculiar influence, but on the lower it operates with most baneful effect. It not only discourages habits of cleanliness, but renders their formation impracticable. Health and morals alike suffer in consequence. Some of these streets are rarely cleaned at all, although, from their closeness and the habits of the residents, they need it oftener than any others. The houses having no direct communication with the common sewer, the street is made the general receptacle for refuse. That the frequent cleansing of such streets is indispensably necessary to the public health, is clearly shown in the Report of Dr. Southwood Smith, on the Causes of Fevers in certain parts of the Metropolis. The patent cart, passing daily through these neglected places, will perform a most essential public service, and may lead to a moral reformation in the habits of the people.

There is another view of the subject, deserving of particular attention, which has not yet been alluded to, viz., the tendency of cleanliness to promote the durability of streets, and, consequently, to diminish the expense of repairs. This is so great, that even under the present system it would be decidedly economical to clean them oftener. When dirt is allowed to collect on the surface, the water is prevented from running off, and soaks down to the foundation, which, becoming soft, yields to the first pressure. The surface of the street is thus rendered uneven, and the injury, though slight at first, is continually augmented. Carriage and wagon wheels revolve in the hollow places with the violence of concussion. The

• The watering-cart was patented by the inventor, to whom it proved extremely valuable, chiefly through its introduction into London. The method previously adopted was, to form an artificial reservoir at the side of the street, and throw the water from scoops across the surface.

25

soil underneath rises between the stones to the surface, causing a new settlement, and forming the principal part of the substance to be carted away. This shows how extremely false a policy it is to allow the dirt to collect in the first instance. In the end, a double quantity is produced, and must be removed, while the structure of the street, which otherwise might have lasted uninjured, is completely broken down. Satisfactory evidence in confirmation of this statement, is furnished by the tables of scavenging, published in the Reports of the Manchester Police Commissioners. In the year 1840, 16,000,000 superficial sq. yards were swept, and 37,000 loads of dirt removed. In the following year, the surface swept was 22,000,000 square yards, and only 30,000 loads were taken. The extent of sweeping was greater by 6,000,000 yards, while the number of loads was less by 7,000. The extra loads removed in the former year, must have consisted principally of water and sub-soil, of which the quantity, in the following year, was diminished by more frequent cleaning.

The expense now incurred in repairing streets, is considerably greater than in cleaning; and the economy which the improved system is calculated to effect under the former head, is no less remarkable than under the latter. But a still greater advantage, even in point of economy, will arise from the improved condition of streets, as affecting the draught of horses, and wear and tear of vehicles of all kinds. This is now so great, from the want of cleanliness and the bad state of repair, that the extra tax on horse power alone, if converted into money, would more than defray all expenses incurred in relation to both objects.

The subject has hitherto been considered only with reference to the streets of populous towns; but its application may be extended to all public highways throughout the country. What has just been stated, respecting the extra draught of horses and cost of repairs, applies more particularly to common roads. In the work of the late Lord Congleton (Sir Henry Parnell) on Roads, various statements are made bearing directly on these points: Among others the following

Calling the draught on a broken stone
road in a dry and clean state ....
That on the same road covered with
dust, is..

Ditto

5

wet and muddy 10

In the same treatise, Lord Congleton ob. serves, "A road should be scraped from time to time, so as never to have half an inch of mud upon it. This is particularly necessary to be attended to, when the materials are weak, for, if the surface is not kept clean, so as to admit of its becoming dry in