are, therefore, strictly didactic. Such are treatises, courses, elements, precepts, etc., of theology, of philosophy, of physics, of literature, etc. These species of works are simply devoted to instruction and are meant to be used in schools and colleges, being addressed to and made level to the capacities of those who are commencing to learn the principles of an art or science.

231. Order or arrangement constitutes the essential merit of works of this class. The writer should set out from acknowledged, fundamental general principles, from which he gradually deduces in order, as regular consequences, all the principles of the science, or the precepts of the art which he teaches. The only ornaments of style admissible in works of this nature are clearness, purity, and precision, but these qualities are indispensable.

Ex.-The Rhetoric, and the Poetics of Aristotle. The Institutes of Quintillian, Locke's Essay on the Human Understanding. Elements of Natural Philosophy, by Leslie.

ART. II. OF ELEMENTARY WORKS WRITTEN IN

RHETORICAL STYLE.

232. There are other elementary works, the special object of which is to instruct, yet, at the same time, possess more interest to the reader on account of the graceful, flowing, or oratorical style in which they are written. Order, clearness, and a profound logical chain of reasoning form the chief merit of works of this class. But the principles, the proofs,

and the consequences drawn from them are more fully developed, and are presented to the reader with more rhetorical ornament. Art is displayed in managing the transitions from one part of the subject to another, and short historical or scientific digressions may be introduced which will be the more interesting to the reader, provided, that they are closely and naturally connected with the subject, and are only brought in to support or confirm the reasoning.

233. The mere technical terms of art and the dry forms of the schools give place to a more elevated tone, and the style may be clothed with such ornament as is suited to the subject. In a word, while the writer addresses himself to the reason, he is not debarred from pleasing the imagination, and even touching the feelings. His aim is to merit the eulogium contained in this line of Horace:

"Omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci."

Ex.-Plato: Cicero, Orator, de oratore, de officiis, etc. Fenelon, Existence de Dieu. Virgil's Georgics. Lucretius, de rerum natura. Pope, Essay on Criticism. Akenside, Pleasures of the Imagination.

ART. III. OF POLEMICAL WORKS.

234. Polemical writings are those which are devoted to defend truth and to combat error. The polemical writer states the arguments of his adversary in all their force, without diminution or curtailment,

and above all without falsifying them, or, what is the same thing, without interpreting them in any other sense than that which the author himself affixes to them. He points out his mistakes, shows the falseness of his principles, or of the facts which he advances, or of the consequences he deduces from them, and exposes his sophistry, his dishonesty, or his prevarication.

235. If the book under consideration is impious or licentious in its tendency, the warmth of the style ought to communicate to the reader some portion of the indignation which the writer himself feels. But personality ought always strictly to be guarded against in speaking of the character of our adversary. Raillery, or even ridicule, when properly managed and appropriately introduced, produces often a much greater effect upon the generality of readers than the most cogent reasoning.

Ex-Letters of Junius.

Bossuet's Variations. Lettres de quelques Juifs, à Voltaire. Les Provinciales de Pascal.

ART. IV. OF CRITICAL WORKS.

236. The object of works of criticism is to point out the beauties or the defects in a composition.

They belong properly to the didactic order of writing, because the judgments we form on works of genius must be founded upon the application of certain rules, and require often the development of the precepts of art or science.

237. A critique or criticism therefore ought to be,

1, clear; 2, judicious; 3, just, and impartial, and 4, candid and ingenuous. It, moreover, presupposes in the writer,

1. A profound knowledge of the subject of which he treats.

2. A careful examination of the work under review, a lively sensibility to perceive its beauties and defects, and a cultivated taste and correct judgment properly to appreciate them, as well as a facility and power of explaining the reasons for the decision pronounced upon them.

3. A mind not liable to be warped by passion or prejudice, and which cannot be swayed by friendship, nor dazzled by the name or reputation of the author; and

4. A temper and disposition that entertains a proper sense of the decorums of life, which forbids an overbearing manner towards his author, all impertinent decisions, all harsh or exaggerated expressions, and especially all offensive personality.

Ex.—The English Reviews, Geoffrey, Commentaires sur Racine.

ART. V.-OF MORAL WORKS.

238. Moral works treat of the duties of man, and are addressed rather to the heart than to the understanding. Their object and tendency is to make virtue amiable and vice detestable, and their design is to teach us the means of practising the one and of avoiding the other.

239. The dry and austere tone and manner in

which works of this kind are sometimes written is

very apt to disgust those for whose benefit they are chiefly intended. Their style, therefore, should combine sweetness with energy, and grace with sim

plicity of language.

Ex.-Cicero de Officiis. The whole Duty of Man. La Bruyère, Caractères. Gobbinet's Instructions.

240. The works of this class which are not confined merely to human virtues, but assume a higher tone, and tend to elevate the soul to God, and to detach it from the love of creatures, are called ascetic works (aoxew, exerceo.).

Ex.-Such are The Imitation of Christ, The Spiritual Combat, the writings of St. Francis of Sales, and of Fenelon, which may be cited as models in this kind of writing.

ART. VI.-OF DIALOGUES.

241. Didactic writers have often employed the form of dialogue under which to convey their precepts. This form consists either in relating a real conversation which we have witnessed, or of introducing several persons who discuss the subject which we wish to make known to the reader.

242. In this kind of writing it is not sufficient merely to make several persons speak the one after the other; the dialogue ought to be a true and sprightly representation of a real conversation. Each speaker ought to have a distinct and appropriate character, which must be carefully preserved throughout; he must possess a manner, a turn of