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(d) Placing the minimum requirement for permission to teach at graduation from an accredited four-year high school, or its equivalent, and in addition two years' professional study acquired at a professional school for teachers, the standard to be reached gradually, becoming effective after ample time (one to five years) is given for all teachers in the service to attain these requirements. 3. Increase the supply of professional teachers by

(a) Offering rewards equal to those of similar professions for young people entering the service. (See the different points under (1) above.)

(b) Providing for definite and effective "in service" training to supplement that given by the local supervisory staff. The extension divisions of the State teacher-preparing institutions afford the logical agencies for this work.

(c) Increasing the length of the period of professional preparation required for teachers. Experience shows that the length of service given by teachers increases with lengthened periods of preparation.

(d) Increase the capacity of existing teacher-preparing institutions wherever their facilities for adequate observation and practice teaching will permit, and in addition establish a sufficient number of new institutions to provide for the schools the number of adequately prepared new teachers needed annually. The needs of the rural schools should not be overlooked in making such provisions.

SALARY TRENDS AND SCHOOL TERM

The following table shows the average annual salaries of teachers in 1925 in the five classes of rural schools, the number of States showing an upward, downward, or even tendency in salaries for each class since 1924, and the length of school term in days:

TABLE 17.—Salary trends and school terms in rural schools in 1925

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The wide gap between the salaries of country teachers and salaries of elementary

teachers in the cities

Chapter VIII

CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS

All States assume definite responsibility for the qualifications of persons licensed to teach within the State. In no State can teachers draw salaries from public-school funds unless they hold a legal teaching license or certificate. In all States there are established certain minimum requirements for teaching certificates and established standards or grades of certificates based on academic or professional qualifications and experience in teaching.

The power of certifying teachers was vested in local authorities first in practically all States. It has, however, gradually become more and more centralized. At present it is centered in county and State authorities, cities under certain conditions, or of a certain size, being exempted in most States and the towns in one State in New England. The centralization has come about gradually, more and more authority in regard to certification being placed in the hands of the State department of education. At the present time the certificating authority is placed in the department of education wholly or sufficiently to give the department large authority in all but about eight States.

The legislatures of the several States generally provide for the certificating of teachers either (1) by providing in the statutes for certain definite types of certificates and setting forth the qualifications demanded for each, fixing the authority and power to grant them, regulations concerning term, validity, etc.; or (2) by the assignment by statute of the authority to formulate rules and regulations for certification to State officers, without making specific provision for details in the law itself. Such authority is generally assigned to the State board of education or the State department of education. City boards are granted this liberty in nearly all States either directly or indirectly. In some States a combination of these two methods is followed, certain general provisions being set forth in the statutes, and designated authorities given considerable liberty in fixing details and interpreting the intent of the law. These details and regulations are then set forth in official regulations.

Agencies which issue certificates.-Teaching certificates are issued by State (including State institutions), county, and local (town, district, or city) authorities. Omitting cities, the following are the systems of administrative organization for issuing certificates:

1. State systems, in which all certificates are issued by State authorities, and the State retains control over the whole matter of teacher certification.

2. State-controlled systems, in which State, county and district authorities may issue certificates, but the authority governing the issue (including giving questions and examining papers) is retained by the State officials. Local authorities merely issue certificates.

3. Semi-State systems, in which States exercise some but not complete control. The State department makes the regulations and gives the questions for examination, but local authorities examine the papers and issue certificates.

4. State-county systems, in which the State, county, city, and certain district authorities all issue some certificates and govern all or important regulations (formulating questions, for example) under which they are granted.

5. State-local systems, as in some of the New England States, in which complete power of certification is given to the township school committees as well as to the State department.

TABLE 18.-Tendency toward centralization of certificating authority in State departments of education, 1898-1926

Kind of system

Number of States 1

1898 1903 1911 1919

1926

State systems (State issues all certificates).

State-controlled systems (State issues most, prescribes rules, gives ques-
tions, and examines papers; county authorities issue some certificates).
Semi-State systems (State issues most certificates, makes regulations,
and gives questions; county or other local authorities issue some cer-
tificates and correct papers under certain conditions).
State-county or other local systems (both issue certificates; county
retains full control over examination for one or more certificates)
County system (county issues all certificates)..

1 Temporary and emergency certificates and permits not included. 2 No data.

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There is a growing tendency to centralize full certificating authority in the State department of education. In 35 States State authorities now exercise entire control. There are 10 additional States in which the State retains authority to give questions and make regulations concerning examinations. County authorities have limited powers, including issuance of certificates and correction of papers. This arrangement does not necessarily result in a uniform State system, since counties may have different standards for grading papers. Uniformity is obtained when State authorities exercise full control.

Methods of securing certificates.-Two methods of securing certificates are recognized in the majority of the States, one by examination under statutory regulations by established State and county authorities, the other on the basis of credentials showing academic

and professional training secured at approved institutions. The examination method, while still common for low-grade certificates, is gradually being replaced by that of professional preparation given in recognized institutions. In all States recognition for certification is given to graduates of approved normal schools and colleges having required credits as set forth in law or by State regulations. Certificates secured in this way are sometimes issued by the State department of education and sometimes by the institutions. In 18 States some recognition toward certification or full certificates are given to persons who have completed prescribed courses in normal training classes in or connected with secondary schools. In at least 6 of these States the work is now on a postgraduate (high-school) basis.

There is a marked tendency to eliminate the examination method of issuing certificates. This is being done by gradually increasing the qualifications required over a period of years and setting forth a definite prerequisite for any certificate, including the lowest grade, of academic and professional training effective at a stated time, usually from two to five years in advance of the time at which the law is passed. This serves to give ample notice to prospective teachers that the given amount of preparation must be made by the date set or certificates will not be forthcoming. Laws setting up requirements which demand gradually increasing qualifications are often accompanied by minimum salary laws.

TABLE 19.-Minimum prerequisites for lowest grade of certificates, and number of States in which established

Minimum prerequisite:

Examination only (no academic or professional training requirement)

Number of

States

15

Examination and minimum amount of academic training less than high-school graduation____.

2

Minimum academic training less than high-school graduation and
some professional training (6 to 18 weeks) –
Graduation from high school__.

Graduation from high school and examination....
High-school graduation and professional training (9 weeks to 2
years)

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High-school graduation, professional study, and examination_‒‒‒‒‒ Certificates granted on graduation from, or courses taken in, educational institutions of secondary or higher grade or by means of

1 After 1927 in one State.

2 Utah's minimum prerequisite is two years of professional training above high-school graduation. At least three other States will reach the same minimum prerequisite by 1927.

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