burned, and into this heated receptacle the hump is conveyed, and covered, about a foot deep, with earth and ashes. A strong fire is again built over the spot, and, supposing these preparations to be begun on the evening of one day, the hump will be ready for eating by the next day at noon. The tongues and marrow bones are regarded, by the connoisseurs, as next in excellence.-Herds, consisting of thousands of these fine animals, still roam over the far western prairies, led by the fiercest and most powerful of the bulls. During the sexual season, the noise of their roaring resembles thunder, and the males often fight desperate battles with each other. While feeding, they are often scattered over a vast surface; but, when they move forward in mass, they form a dense, impenetrable column, which, once fairly in motion, is scarcely to be turned. They swim large rivers nearly in the same order in which they traverse the plains; and, when flying from pursuit, it is in vain for those in front to halt suddenly, as the rearward throng dash madly forward, and force their leaders on. The Indians sometimes profit by this habit: they lure a herd to the vicinity of a precipice, and, setting the whole in rapid motion, they terrify them, by shouting and other artifices, to rush on to their inevitable destruction. Numerous tribes of Indians are almost wholly dependent on these animals for food, clothing, tents, utensils, &c. Vast multitudes of bisons are slaughtered annually ; but it is to be deeply regretted, that the white hunters and traders are in the habit of destroying these valuable beasts in the most wanton and unnecessary manner. It is common for such persons to shoot bisons, even when they have abundance of food, for the sake of the tongue or hump alone, or even because the animals come so near as to present a fair aim. It is, therefore, not to be wondered, that, from all causes of diminution, the bison should become less numerous every year, and remove farther and farther from the haunts of men. The preference always given to the cows, which are too often shot while gravid, operates powerfully in thinning the herds. The skins of bisons, especially that of the cow, dressed in the Indian fashion, with the hair on, make admirable defences against the cold, and may be used for blankets, &c. They are called buffalo robes; the term buffalo being generally, but inaccurately, applied to the bison. The wool of the bison has been manufactured into hats, and has also been employed in making coarse cloth. The time cannot be very far distant, when this species, like the Indian tribes which hover near them, will have passed away, and the places which know them now shall know them no more. BISSAGO, or BISSAUX, or BISSAO; an island in the Atlantic ocean, near the western coast of Africa, and the principal of the cluster called Bissagos, 100 miles in circumference; lon. 14° 10′ W.; lat. 11° 24′ N. The ground rises imperceptibly to the middle of the island. The soil is cultivated and fertile, abounding with several sorts of trees, particularly fine large orange and mangroves near the shore. The inhabitants are Portuguese and Negroes intermixed. The island is divided into 9 provinces, 8 of which are governed by officers appointed by the sovereign, each bearing the title of king. -There is another cluster of islands of the same name, lon. 15° W., lat. 11° 30′ N., 255 miles south of cape Verd. BISSET, Robert; a native of Scotland, educated at Edinburgh, for the clerical profession. He took the degree of LL. D., and became a schoolmaster at Chelsea; but, not succeeding in that occupation, he employed himself in writing for the press. His chief productions are, a History of the Reign of George III, 6 vols. 8vo.; the Life of Edmund Burke, 2 vols. 8vo. and an edition of the Spectator, with lives of the authors, 6 vols. He died in 1805, aged 46. BITAUBÉ, Paul Jeremiah; born in Kő nigsberg, in Prussia, 1732, of French pa rents. He translated Homer into French In consequence of this translation, and the recommendation of d'Alembert, he was elected a member of the academy at Berlin. Frederic II, king of Prussia, favored him much, and allowed him to stay a long time in France, to finish several translations from the German into French. Among his translations is one of Göthe's Hermann and Dorothea. Napoleon conferred marks of favor on him. He died in 1808. His works appeared in 9 vols., Paris, 1804. BITHYNIA; a country in Asia Minor, lying on the Pontus Euxinus, the Thracian Bosphorus and the Propontis, and bounded on the south by Phrygia. In early times, it was called Bebrycia, from the Bebrycians, who inhabited it. Before the time of Croesus, B. was an independent state, under its own princes. After the death of Prusias I, in the war against Croesus, it fell into the power of the Lydians, B. C. 560; into that of the Persians, BITHYNIA-BITUMEN. B. C. 555; and into that of Alexander, B. C. 334. The restorer of the Bithynian throne was Bias or Bas, a native prince, at the court of one of whose successors, Prusias II, Hannibal took refuge, and where he ended his life by poison, 183 B. C. Nicomedes, the last king of this race, bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, 75 B. C. The famous cities of Nicome dia, Nicæa and Heraclea were in B. In the 11th century, B. was conquered by the Seljuks. In 1298, a new kingdom was founded there by the Ottoman Turks, of which, in 1327, Prusa was the capital. BITSCH; a city in the department of the Moselle, with 2500 inhabitants, and a citadel on a hill; by its situation and the art of Carmontaigne, one of the strongest places in France. BITTERN. A name commonly applied to several species of heron; ardea, L. (See Heron.) BITUMEN; the name of a species in mineralogy, the individuals composing which have acquired several distinct names, from their diversity in appearance. This depends chiefly upon their state of aggregation, which forms an uninterrupted series from the perfectly fluid to the solid condition.-Naphtha, the most fluid variety, is nearly colorless, or of a yellowish tinge, transparent, and emits a peculiar odor. It swims on water, its specific gravity being from 0.71 to 0.84. It burns with a bluish-white flame and thick smoke, and leaves no residue. It consists of carbon, 82.20, and hydrogen, 14.80; and, being the only fluid destitute of oxygen, it is used to preserve those new metals in, which were discovered by sir H. Davy. It is found in Persia, in the peninsula of Apcheron, upon the western shore of the Caspian sea, where it rises through a marly soil in the form of vapor, and, being made to flow through earthen tubes, is inflamed for the purpose of assisting in the preparation of food. It is collected by sinking pits several yards in depth, into which the naphtha flows. It is burned in lamps, by the Persians, instead of oil. Near the village of Amiano, in the state of Parma, there exists a spring which yields this substance in sufficient quantity to illuminate the city of Genoa, for which purpose it is employed. With certain vegetable oils, naphtha is said to form a good varnish.—The variety petroleum is much thicker than naphtha, resembling, in consistence, common tar. It has a strong, disagreeable odor, and a blackish or reddish-brown color. During combustion, it emits a thick, black smoke, 119 and leaves a little residue in the form of a black coal. It is more abundant than the first mentioned variety, from which it does not appear to differ, except in being more inspissated. It occurs, oozing out of rocks, in the vicinity of beds of coal, or floating upon the surface of springs. In the Birman empire, near Rainanghong, is a hill containing coal, into which 520 pits have been sunk for the collection of petroleum; and the annual product of this mine is 400,000 hogsheads. It is used, by the inhabitants of that country, as a lamp-oil, and, when mingled with earth or ashes, as fuel. In the U. States, it is found abundantly in Kentucky, Ohio and New York, where it is known under the name of Seneca or Genesee oil. It is used as a substitute for tar, and as an external application for the remedy of rheumatism and chilblains.-Maltha is a bitumen, still less fluid than petroleum, from which it differs in no other respect. Its principal locality is at Puy de la Pège, in France, where it renders the soil so viscous, that it adheres strongly to the foot of the traveller. It is also found in Persia and in the Hartz. It is employed, like tar and pitch, on cables and in calking vessels: it is used, as well as the petroleum, to protect iron from rusting, and sometimes forms an ingredient in black sealing-wax. -Elastic bitumen yields easily to pressure, is flexible and elastic. It emits a strong, bituminous odor, and is about the weight of water. On exposure to the air, it becomes hard, and loses its elasticity. takes up the traces of crayons in the same manner as the caoutchouc, or Indian rubber, whence it has obtained the name of the mineral caoutchouc. It has hitherto been found only in the lead mines of Derbyshire.-Compact bitumen, or asphal tum, is of a shining black color, solid and brittle, with a conchoidal fracture. Its specific gravity is from 1 to 1.6. Like the former varieties, it burns freely, and leaves but little residue. It is found in Judea, in the Palatinate, in France, in Switzerland, and in large deposits in sandstone in Albania; but no where so largely as in the island of Trinidad, where it forms a lake three miles in circumference, and of a thickness unknown gentle heat renders it ductile, and, when mixed with grease or common pitch, it is used for paying the bottoms of ships, and is supposed to protect them from the teredo of the West Indian seas. The ancients employed bitumen in the construction of their buildings. The bricks of which the walls of Babylon were built It A 120 BITUMEN-BLACKBIRD. were, according to historians, cemented with hot bitumen, which imparted to them great solidity. BIVOUACK (from the German biwacht); the name given to the modern system, by which the soldiers in service lie in the open air, without tents, in opposition to the old system of camps and cantonments. They remain dressed, in order to be ready, at a moment's warning, to take their places in order of battle. Tents being laid aside, on the continent of Europe, for the sake of diminishing the baggage of an army, large masses of troops are always obliged to bivouack, even if they are not near the enemy. The soldier, however, is permitted to build himself a hut of straw or branches, if circumstances allow it. Frequent bivouacking is very injurious to the health, and is also a great disadvantage to the countries in which it takes place. BLACAS, count; born at Aulps, in Provence (1770); served in La Vendée; accompanied Louis XVIII to Russia, and afterwards to England. On the restoration of the Bourbons, he was made minister of the king's household. After the second restoration, he was sent to Naples to negotiate the marriage of the duke de Berri. He was afterwards ambassador to Rome, where he concluded the famous concordat of 1815, so unpopular in France, that the government did not venture to propose it to the chambers. On the fall of the ultras and the elevation of Decazes, he retired to Rome, and is said to have been secretly employed at the congress of Laybach. He has since been ambassador to Naples, where, as well as at Rome, he has declared himself the protector of the ultramontanists. B. is a thorough ultra-royalist. BLACK, Joseph, a distinguished chemist, born at Bordeaux, of Scottish parents, in 1728, studied medicine at Glasgow. Doctor Cullen, his instructer, inspired him with a taste for chemical studies. In 1754, he was made doctor of medicine, at Edinburgh, and delivered an inaugural dissertation, De Humore acido a Cibis orto et Magnesia alba, which exhibits the outline of his discoveries relative to carbonic acid and the alkalies. In 1756, he published his Experiments on White Magnesia, Quicklime, and several other Alkaline Substances, in the 2d volume of the Essays, Physical and Literary, of the Edinburgh Society. He demonstrates the existence of an aerial fluid in these substances, which he calls fixed air, the presence of which diminishes the corro sive power of the alkalies and the calca rious earths. This discovery may be considered as the basis of all those which have immortalized the names of Cavendish, Priestley, Lavoisier, &c., and given a new form to chemistry. In 1757, B. enriched this science with his doctrine of latent heat, which has led to such important results. In 1756, he was appointed professor of medicine and lecturer on chemistry in the university at Glasgow, in the place of doctor Cullen, and, in 1765, when Cullen left the professor's chair in Edinburgh, he was there, also, succeeded by B. No teacher inspired his disciples with such a zeal for study; his lectures, therefore, contributed much to make the taste for chemical science general in England. He died in 1799, at the age of 71. Upon Lavoisier's proposal, the academy of sciences, in Paris, had appointed him one of its eight foreign members. His habits were simple, his character cold and reserved. Though of eminent ability as a chemist, he injured himself by his long opposition to the reception of the new chemical theory. At length, however, he was convinced of its superior accuracy, and did justice to its merits. There is a paper of his in the Philosophical Transactions of 1774, and another in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in 1791. Two of his letters on chemical subjects were published by Crell and Lavoisier, and his Lectures on Chemistry, in 1803, in 2 vols. by Robison. BLACK ART. (See Magic.) BLACKBIRD; a trivial name, applied to birds of different species, and distinct genera, but properly belonging to a species of the genus quiscalus, as restricted by prince C. L. Bonaparte, di Musignano, the latest and most accurate writer on ornithological nomenclature. The true blackbirds are either of a rich, glossy black, showing metallic reflections, purple, or ferruginous; being altogether free from maculation. The kinds improperly called blackbird, such as the redwing, cowbird, &c., have bright colors, and are species of icterus or troupial.-All the blackbirds are gregarious and migratory, diffusing themselves in vast flocks from south to north; returning thence as the cold season approaches. They build their nests in trees, socially, and lay about five eggs. The young are unlike the adult birds.-Three species of blackbird are known in the United States; among these, the great crow-blackbird (Q. major, Viel.), is the largest, and, as its name implies, BLACKBIRD-BLACKFISH. 121 strongly resembles, in all respects, the hours, the careful husbandman beholds mischievous plunderer of our cornfields. his fair prospect of an ample harvest alThe male is 16 inches long, having a most most destroyed, and that, too, with but glossy black plumage; the tail is cunei- little chance of his being able to remedy form, and, when the wings are folded, they the evil. It is true that the guns are extend nearly five inches beyond it. The commonly put in requisition, and a few female is of a light brown color, whitish volleys, fired among these insolent thieves, beneath, and twelve and a half inches destroy a small part of their numbers. long. This species is found in the South- But they only change their place to other ern States, principally along the sea-coast: parts of the field, and return ere long to it also inhabits Mexico, and is said to be renew the assault with increased activity. common in the West Indies.-The rusty It is not until the month of November grakle, or blackbird, is nine inches long. that they begin to collect their forces, Its migrations extend from the south, now renovated and augmented by their where it winters, to as far north as within young, to seek the genial climate of the the arctic circle, where it breeds. Accord- south for the winter. When we consider ing to Pennant, they arrive in the vicinity that a very ample quantity of corn is proof Hudson's bay about the beginning of duced, notwithstanding the depredations June, when the ground is sufficiently of these and other birds, and recollect the thawed to allow them access to the grubs vast number of insects they consume beand worms, upon which they chiefly feed. fore their attacks upon the corn begin, They sing finely until they have ceased we shall be inclined to agree with our laying, and when the young are fledged, great ornithologist, Wilson, that the serthey again resume their song. Their vice they render the cultivator by devournests are formed of moss and grass, and ing the insects is quite an adequate complaced in trees about eight feet from the pensation for the tax they levy upon the ground. They pass through the Middle grain. If we extend our observation a States, on their northern tour, early in little further, and remark that these birds April: in September, they collect in vast destroy the insects before they have atflocks, to seek their winter-quarters in the tained their perfect or breeding state, and south. The purple grakle, lesser or com- that a single fly or bug is capable of laymon crow-blackbird, (Q. versicolor, Viel.), is ing thousands of eggs, the magnitude of the most notorious of these sable plunder- the benefit they confer upon mankind ers. On their first arrival in the Middle may be more accurately appreciated. States from the south, which is in the Nevertheless, it is perfectly right, that, latter part of March, they come in scatter- during their ravages upon the grain-field, ed flocks, and are most frequent in they should be driven off and destroyed. swamps, meadows, and recently plough- The extermination of the species is as ed ground. At this season, they consume impossible as the wish to effect it would an immense number of destructive in- be ridiculous. If such an event could be sects, and, if they continued to feed on brought about, we should speedily be such food, they would be among the convinced, that the supreme Author of farmer's chief benefactors. Towards the nature had devised all things in wisdom, beginning or middle of April, they begin by discovering, that, without the aid of to build upon the tall pines or cedars these seemingly useless creatures, the nearest to the fields whence they obtain earth would be despoiled of its vegetatheir food. As many as 10 or 15 nests tion, and the habitations of man become have been found on the same tree. The loathsome from the multiplication of vonests are about five inches in diameter, racious and disgusting worms. composed, externally, of long stalks and knotty grass-roots, and are lined with horse-hair, &c. The eggs are of a bluisholive hue, with large spots, and irregular streaks of dark brown. The period when the green blade of the young Indian corn begins to sprout above the surface of the ground is that in which the common crow-blackbird commences its ravages. Vast flocks, chattering and screaming, as if anticipating the pleasures of the feast, descend upon the soil, and pluck the swelling grain from its recess. In a few 11 VOL. II. BLACKFISH; a species of labrus, caught on various parts of the American coast, especially in the vicinity of Long Island, whence large supplies are obtained for the New York market. For the following particulars concerning this valuable article of food, we are indebted to doctor Mitchell's excellent paper on the fishes of New York, published in the Transactions of the Literary and Philosophical Society. The specific name given by the learned describer is L. tautog, in which he has preserved the designation used by the Mohe 122 BLACKFISH-BLACK FOREST. gan Indians for this fish. The common name, blackfish, is bestowed on account of the color of its back and sides, which are of a bluish or crow-black; the lips, lower jaw, neck and belly, especially in the males, are white. The mouth is rather small, the lips skinny or fleshy, and the teeth are about twelve in number in each jaw, the two front teeth being largest, and the rest of the respective rows gradually decreasing in size. Within the external ranges are the points of smaller teeth, inserted with rather less regularity: they are sharp, distinct, and covered by the lips. The tongue is white, smooth, lying close, but discoverable by raising; tail entire, and somewhat convex, the middle rays being somewhat more prominent than the upper and lower ones; gill covers smooth, neither scaly, serrated nor rough; extremities of the pectoral fins whitish; eyes rather small. The blackfish is plump in appearance, and is much esteemed for the table. It varies in size, from 2 or 3 to 10 or 12 pounds. Rocks, reefs and rough bottoms of the sea, in the neighborhood of the coasts, are the situations most frequented by the blackfish, which appear to be stationary inhabitants of the salt water, as they do not, like the salmon, herring, &c., desert their haunts to visit the fresh-water rivers. These fish are caught in abundance, along the whole of Long Island sound, Fisher's Island sound, and in Narragansett bay. They are also found in the southern bays of Long Island, and on the ocean banks off Sandy Hook. They were formerly carried over land from Newport and Providence to Boston market, but are now caught in Massachusetts bay in sufficient numbers to render such importation unnecessary.-In catching blackfish, the hand line is generally used, though the angle rod may often be advantageously employed: they seize the bait greedily, at proper seasons, and pull strongly, in proportion to their size and weight. They are occasionally taken in seines. The bait commonly employed is the soft clam (mya), the soldier-crab or fiddler (ocypoda), or the large finny worm of the saltwater beaches, called nereis. As the warmth of spring comes on, the blackfish begin to acquire their appetite, which is suspended during the cold of winter, at which time a membrane is found to form over and close up the vent. They may be caught, as above stated, until the warm weather becomes well advanced, when such an abundance of food is to be procured as to render the bait of the fisher man no longer a temptation. The flow ering of the common dog-wood (connus florida) is considered an indication of the beginning of the fishing season; and where this tree is not to be seen, the vegetation of the chestnut-tree is regard ed as a similar indication. These fish are brought to Philadelphia market in wagons, from Long Branch, &c., being packed in ice, and frozen as soon as caught. BLACK FOREST (in German, Schwarzwald); a chain of mountains in the grandduchy of Baden and the kingdom of Würtemberg. It runs almost parallel with the Rhine, from south to north, often only from 15 to 20 miles distant from this river; is about 85 miles long, and, from east to west, in the southern part, about 30 miles wide; in the northern, about 18. The Danube rises in these mountains, as well as many other rivers. Those on the west side run into the Rhine, those on the east side into the Danube. The Black Forest is rather a chain of elevated plains, than of isolated peaks. The highest summit, the Feldberg, measures 4610 German feet. Except from June to September, these mountains are generally covered with snow, and even during this period, are not entirely free from it. Among the many valleys of this chain, the Murgthal is particularly celebrated for its beautiful scenery. The whole chain consists of primitive mountains: its skeleton, throughout, is granite; its higher points are covered with sand-stone, and other layers of less consequence, and are surrounded by heights composed of floetz rocks. On the western side, at the foot, appears gneiss. Porphyry and clay-slate are found on several heights, as, likewise, silver, lead, copper, iron, cobalt and mineral waters. The woods are abundant, and consist mostly of pines and similar species. The raising of cattle is the principal branch of husbandry carried on in this district. The ground is not fertile, and the inhabitants, scattered over the mountains, live extremely frugally, but are very industrious. Their manner of living, building their houses, and cultivating their lands, is very peculiar. Till the 17th century, there was no spirit of trade or industry among them; but the wars of that period developed it, and the manufactures of glass, straw hats, wooden clocks, and other wooden ware, are now very important. They make, annually, more than 180,000 wooden clocks, the value of which amounts to over half a million of guilders. Neustadt and Furtwangen are the central |