and, at the time of maturity, the bone is completely formed. After birth, the bones become gradually more solid, and, in the temperate zones, reach their perfection in men between the ages of 15 and 20. From this age till 50, they change but slightly; after that period, they grow thinner, lighter, and more brittle. Those of the two first classes of animals are harder on their exterior than they are internally. Their material, except in the teeth, is nearly the same throughout. Their structure is vascular, and they are traversed by the blood-vessels and the absorbents. They are hardest at the surface, which is formed by a firm membrane, called the periosteum; the internal parts are cellular, containing a substance called marrow. The use of the marrow is to prevent the too great dryness and brittleness of the bones.-Chemistry decomposes bone into gelatin, fat, cartilage and earthy salts. A fresh bone boiled in water, or exposed to the action of an acid, gives out its gelatin; if boiled in water, on cooling the decoction, a jelly is formed, which makes a good portable soup. A pound of bone yields twice as much as the same quantity of flesh. The earth of bones is obtained by calcination; that is, by exposing them to a red heat, by which they are deprived of the soft substances. That part of anatomy which treats of the bones is called osteology.

BONER, Ulrich, the most ancient German fabulist, was a Dominican friar at Berne, in the first half of the 14th century. He lived when the age of minstrelsy and chivalrous poetry was in its decline, and has published a collection of fables, under the title Der Edelstein (The Gem), which is distinguished by purity of language and picturesque simplicity of description. The first editions of these fables were by Bodmer and Eschenburg. Benecke in Göttingen has published a very good edition more recently, and added a vocabulary (Berlin, 1816).

BONESET. The herb known by the name of boneset or thoroughwort (eupatorium perfoliatum) is a very useful annual plant, indigenous to the United States. It is easily distinguished, in the autumn, in rarshy grounds, by its tall stem, four or five feet in height, passing through the middle of a large, double, hairy leaf, which is perforated by the stalk, and surmounted by a broad, flat head of light-purple flowers. It is much used as a medicine, throughout the country, in the form of an infusion of the heads of the flowers, and part of the remainder of the plant, in

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boiling water, which is allowed to stand a few minutes upon the fire. It is one of the best domestic articles for breaking up and throwing off a violent cold, for which purpose, from a half pint to a pint of the above infusion may be drank cold, at bed-time, which will be found to purge by morning; or it may be taken warm before eating, in the morning, when it will generally operate as an emetic and purgative. Smaller quantities of the infusion, taken warm through the day, in bed, and in combination with other medicines, will be found highly serviceable in rheumatism and rheumatic fevers. As a safe and valuable family medicine, it cannot be too highly recommended.

BONIFACE; the name of several popes. B. I, elected, 418, by a party of the clergy, and confirmed by the emperor Honorius, who declared the antipope Eulalius a usurper. B. persecuted the Pelagians, and extended his authority by prudent measures. A decree of the emperor Theodosius deprived him, in 421, of the spiritual sovereignty over Eastern Illyria. He died 422. His history proves the Roman bishop to have been, in his time, dependent on the secular power.-B. II, elected 530. The death of his rival, the antipope Dioscorus, a few days after his election, left him in quiet possession of the papal chair. He acknowledged the supremacy of the secular sovereign, in a council held at Rome.-B. III, chosen 607, died nine months after his election.

-B. IV, elected 608. He consecrated the Pantheon (q. v.) to the virgin and all the saints.-B. V, a Neapolitan, was pope from 619 to 625. He confirmed the inviolability of the asylums, and endeavored to diffuse Christianity among the English. -B. VI, a Roman, elected 896, died of the gout a fortnight after.-B. VII, antipope, elected 974, during the lifetime of Benedict VI, whose death he was suspected of having caused. Expelled from Rome, he returned on the death of Benedict VII, and found the chair occupied by John XIV, whom he deposed and threw into prison, where he allowed him to die of hunger. B. died 11 months after his return.-B. VIII, see the article. B. IX, Pietro Tomacelli of Naples, succeeded Urban VI at Rome, during the schism in the church, while Clement VII resided at Avignon. He was distinguished for the beauty of his person, and the elegance of his manners, rather than for a profound knowledge of theology and canon law. Even the counsel of his ex-perienced cardinals could not save him

from the commission of gross blunders. He was more skilled in the arts of simony and extortion. He sold the same benefice repeatedly, established the annates in 1372, and lavished the treasures thus procured on his relations, or in costly edifices; the fortification of the castle of St. Angelo, for instance, and the capitol. He supported the pretensions of Ladislaus to the throne of Naples, and, during the greatest part of his pontificate, was engaged in negotiations with his rivals at Avignon, Clement VII and Benedict XIII. He died in 1404.

BONIFACE VIII, Benedict Cajetan; born at Anagni, of an ancient Catalonian family; elected pope Dec. 24th, 1294. He received a careful education, studied jurisprudence, was a canon at Paris and Lyons, advocate of the consistory, and prothonotary of the pope at Rome. After Martin IV had elevated him to the dignity of a cardinal (1251), he went as legate to Sicily and Portugal, and was intrusted with embassies at several courts; in particular, with the charge of reconciling the king of Sicily with Alphonso of Arragon, and Philip the Fair with Edward I of England. After Cœlestine V had resigned the papal dignity, at Naples, in 1294, at the instigation of B., the latter was chosen pope. He met with opposition from the cardinals of the family Colonna, and revenged himself by excommunicating them. His induction was magnificent. The kings of Hungary and Sicily held his bridle on his way to the Lateran, and served him, at table, with their crowns on their heads. B., however, was not successful in his first efforts for the increase of his power. The sovereignty of Sicily was denied him, and Frederic II was crowned king there in spite of his excommunication. He was equally unsuccessful in his attempt to arbitrate between England and France. The bulls which he issued, at this time, against king Philip the Fair of France, obtained no consideration. This was also the case with the interdict which he pronounced against him at the council of Rome, in 1302. Supported by the states and the clergy of France, Philip defended his royal rights against the encroachments of the pope. The pope was accused of duplicity, of simony, of usurpation, of heresy, of unchastity; and it was resolved to condemn and depose him at a general council at Lyons. Philip went still further: he sent Nogaret to Italy, in order to seize his person, and bring him to Lyons. Nogaret united himself, for this purpose, with Sci

arra Colonna, who, with his whole fam ly, had been oppressed by B., and was in consequence, his enemy. B. fled to Anagni, where Nogaret and Colonna surprised him. B., on this occasion, acted with spirit. "Since I am betrayed,” said he, "as Jesus Christ was betrayed, I will die at least as a pope." He assumed the pontifical robes and the tiara, took the keys and the cross in his hand, and seated himself in the papal chair. But the insignia of his holy office did not save him from arrest. Nay, Colonna went so far as to use personal violence. B. remained in a disagreeable confinement for two days, when the Anagnese took up arms, and delivered him. After this, he departed to Rome, where he died, a month later, in 1303. From fear of poison, he had not taken any food during his captivity. This abstinence brought on a fever, which terminated fatally. Boldness in his views, and perseverance in his resolutions, cannot be denied to B.; but these qualities were stained by ambition, vanity, a spirit of revenge, and a mean pliability. Dante assigns to him, as guilty of simony, a place in hell, between Nicholas III and Clement V. B. founded, in 1300, the centennial jubilee, and enriched his treasury by the frequent sale of indulgences. He was an accomplished man, for the times in which he lived.

BONIFACE, St.; the apostle of Germany, who first preached Christianity, and spread civilization among the Germans. He was born in England (680), and his original name was Winfrid. In his 30th year, he was consecrated a priest. A great part of Europe, at this period, was inhabited by heathens, and several missionaries set out from England to convert them. Gallus, in 614, went to Allemania; Emmeran, who died 652, to Bavaria; Kilian, who died 689, to Franconia; Willibrord, who died 696, to Friesland; Sigfrid to Sweden; Swidvert to Friesland. In 716, B. conceived the plan of preaching Christianity among the Frieslanders; but was prevented by the war between Charles Martel and the king of Friesland, Radbod. He therefore returned to England, where he was chosen abbot. In 718, he went to Rome, where Gregory II authorized him to preach the gospel to all the nations of Germany. He commenced his labors in Thuringia and Bavaria, passed three years in Friesland, and journeyed through Hesse in Saxony, baptizing every where, and converting the pagan temples to Christian churches. In 723, he was invited to Rome, made a

bishop, by Gregory II, and recommended to Charles Martel and all princes and bishops. His name Winfrid he changed to B. In 724, he destroyed the oak sacred to Thor, near Geismar, in Hesse, founded churches and monasteries, invited from England priests, monks and nuns, and sent them to Saxony, Friesland and Bavaria. In 732, Gregory III made him archbishop and primate of all Germany, and authorized him to establish bishoprics, the only existing bishopric being the one at Passau. He founded those of Freisingen, Ratisbon, Erfurt, Barabourg (transferred afterwards to Paderborn), Würtzburg and Aichstadt. In 739, he restored the episcopal see of St. Rupert, at Salzburg. After the death of Charles Martel, he consecrated Pepin the Short king of the Franks, in Soissons, by whom he was made bishop of Mentz. He held eight ecclesiastical councils in Germany, founded the famous abbey of Fulda, and undertook, in 754, new journeys for the conversion of the infidels. He was killed at Dockum, in West Friesland, by some barbarians, in 755, in his 75th year. In Fulda, a copy of the Gospels, in his own handwriting, is to be seen. At the place where B. built, in 724, the first Christian church in North Germany, near the village of Altenburg, in the Thuringian forest, a monument has been erected to his memory, consisting of a candelabrum, 30 feet high. The most complete collection of the letters of B. was published at Mentz, 1789, folio.

BONN; capital of the Prussian government of Cologne, formerly the residence of the elector of Cologne, on the left bank of the Rhine, with 1109 houses, four Catholic, and, since 1817, one Protestant church. It contains 10,600 inhabitants, among whom are 200 Jews, who dwell in a particular street. B. was formerly fortified: the works were demolished in 1717. A lyceum was instituted here in 1802. An academy had been established in 1777, and, in 1786, erected into a university. This institution was superseded by the lyceum. The manufactures are The manufactures are not important. The commerce is chiefly in the hands of the Jews. A walk, with four rows of trees, and 1200 paces in length, leads to the beautiful palace of Clemensruhe, near the village of Poppelsdorf. B. contains the university of the Rhine, the charter of which was given, Oct. 18, 1818, at Aix-la-Chapelle, by the King of Prussia, who, at the same time, endowed it with an annual income of 80,000 Prussian dollars, 16,000 of which

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are appropriated to the botanical garden. The former residence of the elector of Cologne was bestowed on the university. It has been fitted up at great expense, and is surpassed, in extent and beauty, by no university buildings in Europe. It contains all the lecture halls, a library of more than 50,000 volumes, a museum of antiquities, a collection of casts of the principal ancient statues, a cabinet for natural philosophy, clinical institutions of uncommon extent and order, to which will be added a Catholic theological seminary, and a convictorium (refectory). The paintings in the aula minor (among others, the great allegorical picture, the Christian Church) were executed by some pupils of Cornelius. To the liberality of the king, the university owes also an anatomical hall, a new riding-school, and an edifice, once a royal palace, in Poppelsdorf, ten minutes' walk from the city, which contains the mineralogical and zoological collections, and before which lies the botanical garden. Adjoining it are lands and buildings for the use of the agricultural institute. The tower of the old custom-house, which commands a fine view, is destined for an observatory. The king has also established here a printing press for Sanscrit, under the inspection of A. W. von Schlegel. The museum of German and Roman antiquities is under the direction of the same distinguished scholar. The teachers of the five

culties, of which the university consists, are more than fifty. Particular advantages are afforded for the education of young men intended for instructers. Many men distinguished in various branches of science are connected with the university. The historian Niebuhr has lately repaired thither to deliver lectures. The exertions of the government to collect in B. all the means of instruction, united with the charms of the place and the beauties of the scenery, have made the university in a short time very much frequented. In 1826, it contained 931 students, among whom were 110 foreigners.

BONN, Andrew, an anatomist, born at Amsterdam, in 1738, studied and received his degree at Leyden. His dissertation was the excellent treatise De Continuitatibus Membranarum, of which two famous physicians, Bichat and Wrisberg, have made use in their works. He finished his studies at Paris. In 1771, he returned to Amsterdam, where he delivered lectures. He had the three first numbers of the Thesaurus Hovianus Ossium Morbo.

sorum engraved at his own expense. He died in 1818. His long life was devoted to the relief of the suffering, and to the education of skilful physicians and surgeons. As president of the Monnikhof institution for the investigation of the best remedies against the different kinds of hernia, he has likewise accomplished a great deal.

BONNER, Edmund, an English prelate of infamous notoriety, was the son of a peasant at Hanley in Worcestershire. He was educated at Pembroke college, Oxford, where he was made doctor of common law, in 1525. For his skill in business, he was patronised by cardinal Wolsey, from whom he received several clerical preferments. On the death of Wolsey, he acquired the favor of Henry VIII, who made him one of his chaplains, and sent him to Rome to advocate his divorce from queen Catharine. Here he conducted with so much intemperance, that the pope is said to have threatened to throw him into a caldron of boiling lead, on which he thought proper to return. In 1538, he was nominated bishop of Hereford, being then ambassador at Paris; but, before his consecration, he was translated to the see of London. At the time of the death of Henry, he was ambassador to the emperor Charles V, but returned the same year, when, refusing to take the oath of supremacy, he was deprived of his bishopric, to which, however, he was restored, on making submission. Still continuing to act with contumacy, he was, after a long trial, once more deprived of his see, and committed to the Marshalsea; from which prison, on the accession of Mary, he was released, and once more restored by commission. During this reign, B. distinguished himself by a most sanguinary persecution of the Protestants, 200 of whom he was instrumental in bringing to the stake, whipping and torturing several of them with his own hands. When Elizabeth succeeded, he went, with the rest of the bishops, to meet her at Highgate, but, at the sight of him, she averted her countenance with an expression of horror. He remained, however, unmolested, until his refusal to take the oath of supremacy; on which he was once more committed to the Marshalsea, where he remained a prisoner for nearly 10 years, until his death, in 1569. He was buried at midnight, to avoid any disturbance on the part of the populace, to whom he was extremely obnoxious. B. was well versed the canon law, and was an able diplo

matist. He cannot, says a Catholic writer, be defended from the charge of extreme rigor and cruelty; yet he deserves credit for his firmness of principle, for his courage when in disgrace, and for the calmness and resignation with which he supported a long imprisonment.

BONNET, in fortification; an elevation of the parapet in the salient angles of a field retrenchment, or of a fortification, designed to prevent the enfilading of the front of the work, at the end of which it is situated. The bonnet accomplishes, however, only part of this object, and is subject, at least in field retrenchments, to the disadvantage, that the men destined for its defence are too much exposed to be taken in flank by the fire of the enemy, on account of the necessary elevation of the banquette (q. v.)-a fault which cannot occur in the works of a fortress which are well laid out.

BONNET, Charles, a natural philosopher and metaphysician, born at Geneva, in 1720, exchanged the study of the laws for that of natural history. His essay On Aphides, in which he proved that they propagated without coition, procured him, in his 20th year, the place of a corresponding member of the academy of sciences at Paris. Soon afterwards, he partook in the discoveries of Trembley respecting the polypus, and made interesting observations on the respiration of caterpillars and butterflies, and on the structure of the tape-worm. An active correspondence with many learned men in his own country and abroad, and too continued perseverance in labor, brought on an inflammation in his eyes, which prevented him from writing for more than two years. His active spirit employed this interval in meditating on the source of our ideas, on the nature of the soul, and on other mysteries of metaphysics. From 1752 till 1768, he was a member of the great council of his native city. He afterwards retired to his country-seat (Genthod), on the banks of the lake of Geneva, where he led a retired life, devoting his time to the investigation of nature, to the conversation of learned men, and to an extensive correspondence, till his death, in 1793. B. was a close and exact observer. He carried religious contemplations into the study of nature. In his views of the human soul, many traces of materialism are to be found; for instance, the derivation of all ideas from the movements of the nervous fibres. Of his works on natural history and metaphysics, there are two collections; one in 9 vols., 4to., the other in 18

vols., 8vo., Neufchatel, 1779. The most celebrated are, Traité d'Insectologie; Recherches sur l'Usage des Feuilles dans les Plantes; Considérations sur les Corps organisés; Contemplation de la Nature; Essai analytique sur les Facultés de l'Ame; Palingénésie Philosophique, and Essai de Psychologie.

BONNET; advocate, and bâtonnier (president) the advocates in Paris. During the revolution, he was zealous in defending many unfortunate persons who were dragged before the revolutionary tribunal. He displayed his brilliant eloquence in the defence of general Moreau. In later times, he has been blamed for having yielded too much to the vindictive spirit of the French state attorneys: since 1815, particularly, he has been considered too compliant towards the procureur-général Bellart. We have reason to suppose that much of the reproach which has been cast upon him is unfounded, as he is known to have exposed his life and liberty, in former times, to save the accused. B. belongs to the extreme right side in the chamber of deputies, and has thus lost his popularity.

BONNEVAL, Claude Alexander, count of, or ACHMET PACHA, born 1672, at Coussac, in Limousin, of an illustrious French family, entered, in his 16th year, the body-guard of the king, but showed an extravagant propensity for pleasure. In war, he was an able and successful partisan, beloved by those under his command. He enjoyed the esteem of the marshal of Luxembourg. In the war of the Spanish succession, he obtained a regiment, with which he marched to Italy, and distinguished himself by his valor as well as by his excesses. On his return, he was obliged to fly, in consequence of some violent expressions against the minister and madame de Maintenon. He was, in 1706, appointed major-general by prince Eugene, and fought against his native country. At the peace of Rastadt, in 1714, by the interference of prince Eugene, the process against him for high treason was withdrawn, and he was allowed to return to his estates. In 1716, he was lieutenant field-marshal of the Austrian infantry, and distinguished himself by his valor against the Turks at Peterwardein (1716). In 1718, B. was made a member of the imperial council of war, but his licentiousness and indiscretion induced prince Eugene to get rid of him, by appointing him, in 1723, master-general of the ordnance in the Netherlands. To revenge himself on Eugene,

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he sent complaints to Vienna against the governor, the marquis of Prie; but the latter, who, on his side, had not been inactive, received an order to arrest B., and to imprison him in the citadel of Antwerp. B., being afterwards ordered to appear at Vienna, and give an explanation of his conduct, spent a month at the Hague before he chose to comply with the summons. He was therefore confined in the castle of Spielberg, near Brünn, and condemned to death by the imperial council of war; but the sentence was changed, by the emperor, into one year's imprisonment and exile. B. now went to Constantinople, where the fame of his deeds, and his humanity towards the Turkish prisoners of war, procured him a kind reception. He consented to change his religion, received instruction in Mohammedanism from the mufti, submitted to circumcision, and received the name Achmet Pacha, with a large salary. He was made a pacha of three tails, commanded a large army, defeated the Austrians on the Danube, and quelled an insurrection in Arabia Petræa. His exertions, as commander of the bombardiers, to improve the Turkish artillery, were opposed by the jealousy of powerful pachas, the irresolution of Mohammed V, and the dislike of the Turkish troops to all European institutions. He enjoyed, however, the pleasures of his situation. He died in 1747. His Mémoires were published by Desherbiers (Paris, 1806, 2 vols.) In the second volume of the Memoirs of Casanova are to be found some notices of B.

BONNYCASTLE, John, professor of mathematics at the royal military academy at Woolwich, was born in Buckinghamshire. Though his education was not neglected, yet he was chiefly indebted to his own exertions for the various and extensive knowledge which he acquired. While young, he became private tutor to the two sons of the earl of Pomfret. After two years, he quitted that situation on being appointed one of the mathematical masters at Woolwich. Here, for more than 40 years, he devoted his time to the duties of his profession, and to the composition of elementary mathematical works. His first production was the Scholar's Guide to Arithmetic, which has passed through many editions. His guides to algebra and mensuration are useful school-books. He likewise wrote a Treatise upon Astronomy, 8vo.; the Elements of Geometry, 8vo.; a Treatise on Plane and Spherical Trigonometry