great practical utility.

The work of Sprengel on the structure and nature of plants, is, perhaps, the most complete. Separate parts of the anatomy of plants nave been treated of by Link, Treviranus and Moldenhawer; vegetable chemistry by Senebier, Saussure and Schrader.

History of the Science. Of the two general divisions of botany, the physiological or philosophical is the elder. Before the Greek philosophers attempted to distinguish classes and species of plants, they examined the laws of vegetable life, the difference of plants from animals, and, as far as it could be done with the naked eye, their structure. Theophrastus of Eresus is the creator of philosophical botany, which he treated on a great and original plan. From the writings of the Alexandrians, and from original observations, Dioscorides of Anazarba, in the first century of the Christian era, compiled a work, which contains imperfect descriptions of about 1200 plants, the medical qualities of which were more attended to by the author than the description of their characteristics or their philosophical classification. This work continued, for 15 centuries, the only source of botanical knowledge. The Persian and Arabian physicians added about 200 plants, which were unknown to the Greeks, and, consequently, the number of known plants, at the time of the revival of letters, was about 1400. Germany has the merit of having founded historical botany. The obvious imperfections of Dioscorides, when the plants of Germany came to be investigated, and the extravagances into which those persons fell, who attempted to apply his descriptions to German plants, impelled Hieronymus of Brunswick, Otho Braunfelsius, Leon. Fuchsius, Hieron. Tragus and Conrad Gesner, to examine the vegetable productions of their country, independently of Dioscorides, and to represent them in wood-cuts. Gesner first started the idea that the parts of fructification were the most essential, and that plants must be classified with reference to them. They were followed, in the 16th century, by the Italians, Peter Matthiolus, Andr. Cæsalpinus, Prosp. Alpinus and Fab. Columna; the Belgians, Dodonæus, Clusius and Lobelius. Among the botanists of this period, who extended the science by their labors in collecting specimens, are the French Dalechamp, the English Gerard, the German Joach. Camerarius, Tabernæmontanus and John Bauhin, whose brother Gaspard not only increased the number of known plants by

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numerous discoveries, but endeavored to reform the nomenclature, which had become much confused by the multiplication of names of the same plant. These are the fathers of botany, whose standard works still reward examination. By the exertions of these men, the number of known plants, at the beginning of the 17th century, amounted to 5500. The neces sity of classification increased with the quantity of materials. Lobelius and John Bauhin adopted the natural division of trees, grasses, &c., without reference to any general principle. Andreas Casalpinus, by the advice of Conrad Gesner, fixed upon the fruit and the seed as the foundation of a classification, which is still retained by many of his followers, who are called fructists. In the 17th century, new methods were introduced by Robert Morison and John Ray; the latter of whom attended to the structure of the corolla and its parts, while Rivinus considered only the regularity or irregularity of its shape, and Tournefort its resemblance to other objects. The number of known plants was increased by Morison, Plukenet, Barrelier, Boccone, van Rheede, Petiver and Plumier. In the 17th century, the foundation of botanical anatomy was laid by Grew and Malpighi; botanical chemistry was founded by Homberg, Dodart and Mariotte; and the difference of sex was discovered by Grew, Morland and Rud. Jak. Camerarius. This discovery Micheli attempted to extend even to the lower degrees of organization, moss, lichens and sponges. To such predecessors, and to the great collectors of herbariums, Rumphius, Parkinson, Sloane, Flacourt, Sommelyn, Buxbaum, Ammann and Feuillée, the immortal Linnæus was indebted, in part, for the idea on which his system was founded, and for his great stores of botanical knowledge. When the first edition of his Species Plantarum was published, he was acquainted with 7300 species; in the second edition, with 8800. If we consider that a moderate herbarium now contains from 11,000 to 12,000 species, we must be astonished at the increase in the number of known plants in 60 years. The two sexes of Linnæus were afterwards extended, by Dillenius, Schmidel and Hedwig, to the imperfect vegetables. This system was opposed by Adanson, Alston and Haller; it was extended still farther by Schreber Scopoli, Crantz and Jacquin. In the 18th century, numerous discoveries in the vegetable world were made by John Burmann, J. G. Gmelin, Pallas, Forskál, For

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ster, Hasselquist, Browne, Jacquin, Aublet, Sommerson, Stahl, Swartz, Aiton. Vegetable physiology was enlarged and enriched with new discoveries by Bonnet, Du Hamel, Hill, Koelreuter and Sennebier, and thus botany approached its present degree of improvement. (See Sprengel's History of Botany, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1818.) An outline of the Linnæan system is to be found in the article Plants. BOTANY BAY. (See New South Wales.) BOTH, John and Andrew; born at Utrecht, in 1610, the sons of a glass painter, who instructed them in the rudiments of drawing. They afterwards made further progress in the school of Abraham Bloemaert, and went, at an early age, together to Italy. John, attracted by the works of Claude Lorraine, chose him for his model; Andrew preferred the painting of the human figure, and imitated the style of Bamboccio. But, although their inclinations led them in different directions, their mutual friendship often united their talents in the same works. Thus Andrew painted the figures in the landscapes of his brother; and their labors harmonized so well, that their pictures could not be suspected of coming from different hands. The ease and fine coloring, in the beautiful figures of John, cannot be overlooked, in spite of the excess of yellow, sometimes found in them. His fame has been confirmed by time, and his merit, as well as his residence in Italy, has procured him the name of Both of Italy. Andrew was drowned at Venice, in 1650. John, inconsolable for his loss, abandoned Italy, and returned to Utrecht, where he died shortly after. The plates which John Both has himself etched from his principal works are much valued.

BOTHNIA, EAST, a province formerly belonging to Sweden, but ceded to Russia in 1809, situated on the E. side of the gulf of Bothnia, bounded N. by Lapland, E. by the Russian government of Archangel and Olonetz, S. by Finland, and W. by the gulf of Bothnia, is about 300 miles in length, and from 60 to 210 in breadth. Towards the south, and on the sea-coast, the land is low and marshy. The summers are often so cold as to destroy a great part of the crops. Population, about 70,000. The cattle are small, and bears are numerous. The salmon fishery is abundant, and that of pearls often successful. The principal exports are timber, butter, whale-oil, pitch, tar, &c. The principal towns are Cajana, or Cajaneborg, Ulea, Christinestadt, &c.

BOTHNIA, WEST; a province of Sweden,

situated on the W. side of the gulf of Bothnia, bounded N. and W. by Lapland, S. by Angermania, and E. by the gulf of Bothnia. The country is tolerably fertile, but sudden frosts, in the month of July, often destroy the laborer's hopes. There are mines of copper and iron. The principal towns are Umea, Pithea and Lulea. Population, about 56,000.

BOTHNIA, GULF OF; the northern part of the Baltic sea, which separates Sweden from Finland. It commences at the island of Aland, 61° N. lat., and extends to 66°: its length is about 360 miles, its breadth from 90 to 130, and its depth from 20 to 50 fathoms. It freezes over in the winter, so as to be passed by sledges and carriages. Its water contains only one third of the proportion of salt found in other seawater. It abounds in salmon and in seals, which furnish great quantities of train-oil. This gulf is gradually decreasing in extent.

BOTHWELL; a village of Scotland, on the Clyde, nine miles from Glasgow. At Bothwell bridge, a decisive battle was fought, in 1679, between the Scottish covenanters, commanded principally by their clergy, and the royal forces, commanded by the duke of Monmouth, in which the former were totally routed.

BOTHWELL, James Hepburn, earl, is known in Scotch history by his marriage with queen Mary. It is supposed, by some historians, that he was deeply concerned in the murder of the unfortunate Darnley, Mary's husband, and that he was even supported by the deluded queen. He was charged with the crime, and tried, but acquitted. After the death of Darnley, he seized the queen at Edinburgh, and, carrying her a prisoner to Dunbar castle, prevailed upon her to marry him, after he had divorced his own wife. Though seemingly secure in the possession of power, and though created earl of Orkney by the unfortunate queen, he soon found that his conduct had roused the indignation of the kingdom. Mary found not in him the fond husband she expected: he became unkind and brutal. A confederacy was formed against him by the barons, the queen was liberated from his power, and he escaped to the Orkneys, and afterwards to Denmark, where he died, 1577. In his last moments, it is said, that, with an agonizing conscience, he confessed his own guilt, and the queen's innocence, of the murder of Darnley.

BOTOCUDES, Savages of Brazil, received their name from the large wooden pegs,

with which they ornament their ears and lips. A small part of these savages is now somewhat civilized. Most of the tribes are still in a completely barbarous state, continually at war among themselves, and accustomed to eat the flesh of their enemies. A more particular, though incomplete, account of them is to be found in the Travels of the Prince of Neuwied and others in Brazil. With the view of promoting their civilization, three Indian villages were laid out, in 1824, by order of the emperor.

BOTTA, Carlo Giuseppe Guglielmo, member of the academy of sciences at Turin, a poet and historian, born, 1766, at S. Giorgio, in Piedmont, studied medicine and botany at Turin. In 1794, he was a physician in the French army which passed the Alps. This service carried him to Corfu. In 1799, he was a member of the provisory government of Piedmont, and was one of those who favored the incorporation of Piedmont with France. After the battle of Marengo, he was a member of the Piedmontese consultà. In the corps legislatif, he displeased Napoleon, because he openly censured the despotism of his administration. In 1814, he was one of the members of the corps legislatif, which pronounced that Napoleon had forfeited his throne. After the restoration, he was struck out of the list of members of the legislative body, because he was a foreigner, and not naturalized. In 1815, Napoleon appointed him director of the academy at Nancy. At the restoration, he resigned this post, and lives now as a private individual. His most important works are his Description of the Island of Corfu (2 vols.); his translation of Born's (Joannis physiophili) Specimen monachologia; Memoir on the Theory of Brown; Recollections of a Journey in Dalmatia; On Tones and Sound; Short History of the Royal House of Savoy and Piedmont; History of the North American Revolutionary War; Il Camillo o Veja conquistata, a much-esteemed epic poem, in 12 cantos, published in 1816; Storia d'Italia dal 1789 al 1814 (4 vols. 4to.), in 1824, somewhat rhetorical, but a good picture of the state of this unhappy country; Histoire des Peuples d'Italie (Paris, 1825, 3 vols.), in which he denies to the Christian religion and to philosophy the merit of having civilized Europe, and attributes this effect to the revival of learning.

BOTTLES, by the ancients, were made of skins and leather: they are now chiefly made of thick glass, of the cheapest

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kind, and formed of the most ordinary materials. It is composed of sand, with lime, and sometimes clay, and alkaline ashes of any kind, such as kelp, barilla, or even wood ashes. The green color is owing partly to the impurities in the ashes, but chiefly to oxyde of iron. This glass is strong, hard and well vitrified. It is less subject to corrosion by acids than flint-glass, and is superior to any cheap material for the purposes to which it is applied.

BOTTOMRY is the hypothecation or pledge of a vessel for the payment of a debt. The creditor has no right to take possession of the ship, until the expiration of the time for which the loan is made, and then (under a bottomry_contract_in the usual form) only by the intervention of an admiralty court. If the loan is not repaid at the stipulated time, the lender applies to an admiralty court, which (the truth of the claim being established) decrees a sale of the ship to satisfy the debt. The conditions of such a contract usually are, that, if the ship is not lost or destroyed by those risks which the lender agrees to run, the debt is to become absolute. The risks assumed by the lender are usually the same as are enumerated in a common policy of insurance. If the ship is wholly lost in consequence of these risks, the lender loses his loan. In case of a partial damage, the bottomry bond usually provides that this damage shall be borne by the lender in the proportion of the amount loaned to the value of the ship. If this amount is equal to one half of the value of the ship, the lender is to bear one half of the amount of such loss, &c. As the lender thus assumes a certain risk, he is justly entitled to a greater interest than if he did not thus take the hazard of the loss of the whole loan; and this is called marine interest. He is entitled to the usual rate of interest on his loan, in addition to the usual premium of insurance for the same voyage or period. The stipulation for such a rate of marine interest is not a violation of the laws against usury, for it is not merely a compensation for the use of the money loaned, but also for the risk assumed. The ship-owner may borrow money on bottomry, whether his vessel be in port or at sea. But the captain of the ship, as such, cannot so borrow when in the port where the owner resides, or near enough to consult him on any emergency. In any other port, he may pledge the ship on bottomry for the purpose of raising money necessary for repairing, supplying and

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navigating her, if he can obtain it in no other way. If he borrow thus without necessity, the bond is void, and the lender can look only to the personal responsibility of the captain.

Bors. (See Estrus.)

BOTZEN, or BOLZANO; a town in Tyrol, at the confluence of the Eisack and the Adige, containing 8100 inhabitants, and 1000 houses. It has four annual fairs. The rivers of the town, the former privileges of the bishop of Trent, and the intersection of the main roads leading to Germany, Italy and Switzerland, at this place, on account of the chains of mountains and the courses of the streams, afforded it great advantages for commerce, which yet continue, in some degree. Its commerce, however, is much injured by the smuggling over lake Como, and also from Switzerland, into Lombardy. B. lies in a valley, enclosed by high mountains is, therefore, excessively hot in summer, and sometimes even visited by the sirocco. The finest fruits of Upper Italy (agrumi) are produced here, if protected by a covering in winter on the east side of the mountain. Autumn is here the most beautiful season in the year. The winter is generally short. On the declivities of the mountains is produced a peculiar kind of red wine. In the valleys, mulberry-trees flourish. B. is, therefore, the best place for silk-worms in the Austrian dominions.

BOUCHARDON, Edmund, born, in 1698, at Chaumont-en-Basigni, son of a sculptor and architect, applied himself early to drawing and painting. He made many copies, without, however, giving up the study of nature. In order to devote himself to statuary, he went to Paris, and entered the school of the younger Coustou. He soon gained the highest prize, and was made royal pensioner at Rome. He studied his art partly in the works of antiquity, and partly in those of Raphael and Domenichino. He executed several busts, and was to have erected the tomb of Clement XI, but the orders of the king recalled him to Paris in 1732. Here, among other works, he made a large group in stone, representing an athlete overcoming a bear. This stood for a long time in the garden of Grosbois. After wards, he assisted in repairing the fountain of Neptune at Versailles. He executed ten statues, which adorn the church of St. Sulpice. A monument to the duchess of Lauraguais, made by him, is also in that church. The fountain in the rue de Grenelle, which the city of Paris order

ed to be constructed in 1739, was made by him, and is considered his masterpiece. A Cupid which he made for the king was unsuccessful. For the Traité des Pierres gravées, B. furnished designs, from which the plates were copied. The execution of the greatest monument of that period, the equestrian statue of Louis XV, which was erected by order of the city of Paris, was committed to him. He labored 12 years on this, with inconceivable perseverance, and has left, in the horse, a model which may be ranked with any work of antiquity. He died in 1762. His designs are great and accurate. His pieces bear the character of simple grandeur. He put more spirit and expression into his sketches than into the marble. In general, more fire is to be desired in his sculpture. The paintings which he executed at Rome are bold and powerful. Afterwards he adopted a more polished, delicate manner, to suit the taste of the age. Among his scholars, Louis-Claude Vassé, who died in 1772, is distinguished. Caylus has written his life.

BOUCHER, Alexander, or, as he was accustomed to call himself, from the title given him in a French journal, L'Alexandre du violon, one of the most remarkable but eccentric violinists, was born at Paris in 1770. At the age of six, he played before the dauphin, and at eight he played in public. He was in unfortunate circumstances in early life, until he obtained a place in Spain, under Charles IV, who was himself a very good violinist. In 1814, he went to England. At Dover, the customhouse officers were about to seize his instrument, but B. suddenly struck up “God save the King," with variations, and was suffered to pass unmolested. He is as remarkable for eccentricity as for his musical powers. He is now established at Berlin. B. has attracted much attention by his resemblance to Napoleon, whose gait, demeanor and look he can perfectly imitate. Every one fancies he sees the exemperor when B. folds his arms. He declares this resemblance to have been disadvantageous to him at the time of the restoration of the Bourbons.

BOUCHER, Francis; painter to the king, and director of the academy of painters; born at Paris, 1704, died 1770. While a pupil of the celebrated Lemoine, he gained, at the age of 19, the first prize of the academy. After studying at Rome for a short time, he returned to Paris, and was styled the painter of the graces—a title which he did not merit. He would, per

haps, have risen to excellence, had he not yielded to the corrupt taste of his age, and had devoted himself more completely to his studies, The ease with which he executed made him careless. His drawing is faulty; his coloring does not harmonize, especially in his naked pieces, which are so glaring, that they appear as if the light was reflected on them from a red curtain. In a word, he is looked upon as the corrupter of the French school. He was neither envious nor avaricious, but encouraged younger artists as much as was in his power. The great number of his paintings and sketches show with what rapidity he produced them. The latter alone amounted to more than 10,000. He has also etched some plates, and many of his paintings have been engraved.

BOUCHES-DU-RHÔNE (mouths of the Rhone); a department in the south of France, in the ancient government of Provence. Chief town, Marseilles. Pop. in 1827, 326,302. (See Departments.) BOUDINOT, Elias, was born in Philadelphia, May 2, 1740. He was descended from one of the Huguenots, who sought refuge in America from religious persecution in France. He studied the law, and became eminent in that profession. At an early period of the revolutionary war, he was appointed, by congress, commissary-general of prisoners. In the year 1777, he was chosen a member of congress, and, in 1782, was made president of that body. After the adoption of the constitution, he entered the house of representatives, where he continued six years. He then succeeded Rittenhouse as director of the mint of the U. States, an office which he resigned in the course of a few years, and lived, from that time, at Burlington, New Jersey. He devoted himself earnestly to Biblical literature, and, being possessed of an ample fortune, made munificent donations to various charitable and theological institutions. The American Bible society, of which he became president, was particularly an object of his bounty. He died at the age of 82, in October, 1821.

BOUDOIR; a small room, simply and gracefully fitted up, destined for retirement (from bouder, to pout, to be sulky). It may be indebted for its name to an angry husband, whose wife, when inclined to pout, shut herself up in her chamber. The boudoir is the peculiar property of the lady-her sanctum sanctorum. To this she flies for peace and solitude from the bustle of society. 19

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BOUFFLERS, marshal de, born 1644 died 1711, may be considered one of the most celebrated generals of his age. He was an élevè of the great Condé, of Turenne, Crequi, Luxembourg and Catinat. His defence of Namur, in 1695, and of Lille, in 1708, are famous. The siege of the former place was conducted by king William in person, and cost the allies more than 20,000 men. The latter was conducted by prince Eugene. An order was sent from Louis XIV, signed by his own hand, commanding B. to surrender; but he kept it secret, until all means of defence were exhausted. The retreat of the French after the defeat at Malplaquet, under the direction of B., was more like a triumph than a defeat.

BOUFFLERS, Stanislaus, chevalier de, member of the French academy, son of the marchioness of B., mistress of Stanislaus, king of Poland, born at Luneville, 1737, was considered one of the most ingenious men of his time, and was distinguished for the elegance of his manners and conversation. He was destined for the church, but declared that his love of pleasure would interfere with the duties of this profession. He entered the military career, was soon appointed governor of Senegal, and, while in this office, made many useful regulations. After his return, he devoted himself to that light kind of literature which distinguished the age of Louis XV. He was much admired by the ladies, and in the higher circles of the capital, as well as in the foreign courts which he visited. His reputation gave him a seat in the states-general, where he was esteemed for his moderation and his good intentions. After Aug. 10, 1792, he left France, and met with a friendly reception from prince Henry of Prussia, at Reinsberg, and Frederic William II. A large grant was made to him in Poland for establishing a colony of French emigrants. In 1800, he returned to Paris, where he devoted himself to literary pursuits, which, in 1804, procured him a seat in the French institute. He died Jan. 18, 1815. He lies buried near the abbé Delille, and on his tomb is this in scription, written by himself, and charac teristic of his lively disposition: Mes amis, croyez que je dors. His works were published in 8 vols. 12mo. 1815. His mother was long the ornament of the court of Stanislaus, during its residence at Luneville, by the graces of her mind and beauty of her person. Voltaire addressed to her a madrigal which finishes thus: