printer, and had made himself known by some small pieces of his own composition. He now devoted himself ardently to politics, became a member of the club des Cordeliers, was connected with Danton, and played an active part in the tempests of that period. Till Aug. 10, 1792, he was engaged in publishing a daily newspaper. Afterwards, he went as a commissary to Belgium. In 1793, he entered the military service in the revolutionary army, in the Gironde. Oct. 10, 1795, he aided Barras to put down the Jacobins, who had assaulted the camp of Grenelle. Afterwards, he distinguished himself as general of brigade in the Italian army, in 1797, in the attack of Verona, and in the battle of Arcoli. When the directory of Switzerland declared war, B. received the B. received the chief command of an army, entered the country, without much opposition, in January, 1798, and effected a new organization of the government. In 1799, he received the chief command in Holland, defeated the English in the north of Holland, Sept. 19, near Bergen, and compelled the duke of York to agree to the treaty of Alcmaer, Oct. 18, by which the English and Russians were to evacuate the north of Holland. In January, 1800, he was made a counsellor of state, and was placed at the head of the army of the west. The restoration of tranquillity to the provinces, torn by civil war, was, in a great degree, effected by him. Aug. 13, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Italian army. Towards the end of December, he led his troops over the Mincio, conquered the Austrians, passed the Adige, Jan. 8, 1801, took possession of Vicenza and Roveredo, and concluded an armistice, Jan. 16, at Treviso, with the Austrian general Bellegarde, by which several fortified places in Italy were surrendered to the French troops. When peace recalled him to the council of state, towards the end of November, 1802, he laid before the legislative body for confirmation the treaty of peace with the court of Naples. The next year, he went as ambassador to the court of Constantinople. He prevailed there at first over the English party, and received from the Turkish ministry the highest marks of honor; but, when new dissensions arose between the two powers, he left Turkey. During his absence, May 19, 1804, he was appointed marshal of the empire. At the end of 1806, Napoleon appointed him governor-general of the Hanseatic towns, and, soon after, commander of the troops in Swedish Pomerania, against the king

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of Sweden. This monarch invited the marshal to a personal interview, in which he endeavored to convert him to the cause of Louis XVIII. B. refused every proposal. He may, however, have drawn upon himself the indignation of Napoleon by his conduct in this interview, or by favoring the English contraband trade in Hamburg. At any rate, he was recalled, and suffered to remain without employment. After the revolution of 1814, he recognised Louis XVIII, and received the cross of Louis, but no appointment. This was the cause of his declaring himself for Napoleon, immediately upon his return. He received the chief command of an important army in the south of France, and was made a peer. When circumstances changed again, he delayed a long time before he gave up Toulon, which was in his possession in 1815, to the troops of Louis XVIII, and sent in his resignation to the king. This circumstance, and the severities exercised by his command, might well have excited against him the rage of the people. While retiring from Toulon to Paris, he was recognised, at Avignon, by the people who favored the king; and they immediately collected together about the hotel where he had entered. The excited populace were heated still more, when a report was spread among them, that B. was the murderer of the princess Lamballe. The marshal was permitted, however, to go away quietly. But scarcely had his carriage left the city before a mob of the rabble which had followed compelled the driver to turn back to the hotel. When the marshal had alighted, and retired, with his two adjutants, to his former chamber, the doors of the house were locked. The insurgents had, in the mean time, gained a powerful accession to their numbers, and, with loud shouts, demanded the death of the marshal. In vain did the prefect and the mayor strive to defend him (as there were no troops in the city) for the space of four hours and a half, at the peril of their lives. The door was at last broken open, a crowd of murderers rushed into the chamber, and the unhappy marshal fell under a shower of balls, after a fruitless attempt to defend himself and justify his conduct. His body was exposed to the most shameful insults, and then dragged from the hotel to the bridge over the Rhone, from which it was thrown into the river.

BRUNEHAUT. (See Brunehild.)

BRUNEHILD, Brunichild; married to Siegbert I, king of Austrasia, in 568, a

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Visigothic princess, of powerful mind, enterprising spirit, heroic resolution, deep political knowledge, and unrestrained ambition. She involved her husband in a war with his brother Chilperic, in the course of which he was murdered, A. D. 575; but she continued to live and rage till 613, when she fell into the hands of Clothaire II, king of Soissons, who put her to a most terrible death, as having been the murderess of 10 kings and royal princes. (See Fredegonde.)

BRUNELLESCHI, Philip, born 1377, at Florence, devoted himself to the study of the works of Dante, to natural philosophy and perspective, the rules of which were then scarcely known. He formed various figures, and invented ingenious machines. He devoted himself particularly, however, to architecture, and learned the art of drawing, to make his architectural plans; statuary, to adorn them; and mechanics, that he might be able to raise the materials. He was also profoundly versed in mathematics and geometry. He is said to have drawn views of the finest monuments in Florence in perspective-an art which then excited much astonishment. This various knowledge prepared him for bold and difficult undertakings, and gained him the name of the restorer of architecture. As a statuary, he was much indebted to his intimate connexion with Donatello, who was then very young, but very able. Both went to Rome. Here B. conceived the idea of restoring architecture to the principles of the Greeks and Romans. When the architects assembled, in 1407, at Florence, to consult upon the building of the dome of the cathedral, the plan which B. proposed received but little attention, and he went back to Rome. It was found necessary, however, to have recourse to him, as the undertaking far surpassed the powers of the other architects. He engaged to erect a dome, which, by its own weight, and by the strong connexion of its parts, should hang suspended. This proposal seemed so wonderful, that the author was regarded as insane. As all other plans, however, failed to answer the expectations of the magistrates, B. was again recalled, and ordered to explain the mode in which he intended to execute his plan. This he refused to do, but built two small chapels according to his new system, upon which the charge of erecting the dome was committed to him. As he observed that the higher the building was raised the more time was lost in going up and down, he erected some small lodg

ings on the dome itself, and by that means saved the laborers the time thus spent. Aided only by his own genius, he accomplished the work, which remains one of the boldest creations of the human mind. But the ingenious lantern, which formed the upper part of the dome, was not finished when he died, in 1444, aged 67. It was completed, however, according to his first design. No monument of ancient architecture is so noble as this wonderful building. Only the dome of St. Peter's at Rome, which was built since, excels it in height, but is inferior to it in lightness and grandeur of style. Michael Angelo said it was difficult to imitate B., and impossible to excel him. B. is the author of a great number of other masterpieces of architecture.

BRUNET, James Charles, bookseller at Paris, began his bibliographical career by the preparation of several auction catalogues, of which the most interesting is that of the count d'Ourches (Paris, 1811), and of a supplementary volume to Cailleau's and Duclos's Dictionnaire Bibliographique (Paris, 1802). In 1810 was published the first edition of his Manuel du Libraire et de l'Amateur de Livres, in 3 vols., which gained such universal applause, that, in 1814, a second, and, in 1820, a third edition, of four volumes each, were demanded. This work showed him the worthy successor of the meritorious Debure (from whose works those of B. are distinguished only by the alphabetical form.) An attempt to unite the plan of his work with the considerations which must guide the man of learning in his studies and labors, is contained in the Bibliographical Lexicon, by Ebert, since published.

BRUNET. (See Paris, Theatre of.) BRUNHILDIS. (See Nibelungen.) BRUNI. (See Bruno, Giordano.) BRUNINGS, Christian; one of the great-. est hydraulic architects of Holland; born 1736, at Neckerau, in the Palatinate. In his childhood, he devoted himself to the sciences connected with hydraulic architecture. In 1769, the states of Holland appointed him general inspector of rivers. This introduced him to a share in several important commissions; for instance, that for the improvement of the dike system, in 1796; that for draining the tracts between Niewskogs and Zevenhoven, in 1797, &c. His most important waterworks are his improvements in the diking of the lake of Haerlem, the improved diking and deepening of the Oberwasser, so called, in the Netherlands, which, at

high tides, often inundated vast extents of country, together with the change in the course of the Waal-stream and the canal of Pannerde, by which the beds of the Rhine, the Waal and t. Leck were improved. He introduced into his department the use of the stream measure, so called. His many official duties permitted this worthy officer but seldom to appear as an author. Yet we find scientific essays written by him in the 14th, 19th and 20th volumes of the Memoirs of the Haerlem Society of Sciences, and some other pieces. He died in 1805. The directory of the then republic wished to erect a monument to him in the cathedral church at Haerlem; but it has never been completed, on account of the political disturbances that occurred soon after his death.

BRUNN; the capital of Moravia, and of a circle of the same name, which contains a population of 300,000, and is fertile in corn and flax. The population of the city, with the suburbs, is 33,300. It contains the government offices, the house for the meeting of the states, the palace of prince Lichtenstein, a gymnasium, many fine houses, &c. There are at B. several flourishing manufactures of fine woollen cloths and kerseymeres, one of which employs 5000 individuals. It is the centre of the Moravian commerce, a great part of which is carried on by fairs held at B. every three months. On a hill near it is the fortress of Spielberg, now used as a prison. Lat. 49° 11' N.; lon. 16° 35' E.

BRUNO THE GREAT, archbishop of Cologne and duke of Lorraine, third son of Henry the Fowler, and brother of the emperor Otho I, had a great share in the events of his time, and surpassed all the contemporary bishops in talents and knowledge. A numerous train of learned men from all countries, even from Greece, continually followed him, and his excellent example was imitated by many prelates. He died at Rheims, Oct. 11,965. Commentaries on the five books of Moses, and the biographies of some saints, are ascribed to him.

BRUNO, St. Among several individuals of this name, the most famous is the one who established the order of Carthusian monks. He was born at Cologne, about 1030, of an old and noble family, which still flourished in the middle of the 18th century; was educated in the school of the collegiate church of St. Cunibert; in which, also, he afterwards received a canonship, and then studied at Rheims,

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where he distinguished himself to such a degree, that Gervais, the bishop, appointed him to superintend all the schools of the district. He attracted many distinguished scholars, and, among others, Odo, afterwards pope Urban II. The immorality of his times induced him to go into solitude. He retired, therefore, with six friends of the same disposition, to the residence of St. Hugo, bishop of Grenoble, who, in 1084, led them to a desert, four or five leagues distant from the city, called Chartreuse, whence the order of monks received its name. Here, in a narrow valley, overshadowed by two steep rocks, covered with snow and thorns, B. and his companions built an oratory, and small, separate cells to dwell in, and founded, in 1086, one of the severest orders of monks. In the mean time, Urban II became pope, and, in 1089, invited his former instructer to his court. B. reluctantly obeyed, but refused every spiritual dignity, and, in 1094, received permission to found a second Carthusian establishment in the solitude of della Torre, in Calabria. Here he lived in his former mode, ruled his new colony with wisdom, and died in the arms of his scholars, A. D. 1101. Leo X, in 1514, permitted the Carthusians to celebrate a mass in honor of him; and Gregory XV, in 1623, extended it to the whole Catholic church. He was afterwards canonized. B. gave his scholars no particular laws. A complete set of regulations for the Carthusians was first formed A. D. 1581, and confirmed by Innocent XI.

BRUNO, or BRUNI (Brunus, Leonardo), of Arezzo, whence his name Aretino (Aretinus), was one of the most famous of the literati at the period of the revival of classic literature in Italy. He was born in 1370, and, in his childhood, was excited by the character of Petrarch, to the pursuit of those studies to which he consecrated his life. He first studied law at Florence and Ravenna; but the arrival of Emanuel Chrysoloras at Florence gave him a decided turn for classical learning, He afterwards filled many offices in the Roman Catholic church, and accompanied pope John XXIII to Constance, where the latter was deposed, and B. escaped to Florence. Here he wrote his Fiorentine History, received, in consequence, the rights of citizenship, and afterwards, by the favor of the Medici, became secretary to the republic. In this important post he died, A. D. 1444. Florence and Arezzo vied with each other in honoring his memory by splendid obsequies and mon

uments. The merits of B., in spreading and advancing the study of Greek literature, consist particularly in his literal Latin translations of the classics; for instance, the writings of Aristotle, the orations of Demosthenes, the biographies of Plutarch, &c. The other works on which his fame rests are, his Florentine History, also a history of his times, from 1378 to 1440, and his speeches. His collection of letters, also, is valuable. His writings are in the Latin language, with the exception of two biographies of Dante and Petrarch. His chief work is Historic Florentina (12 books, Strasb., 1610, folio), with which is connected the Commentarius Rerum suo Tempore Gestarum, published in Italian, at Venice, 1476, folio.

BRUNO, Giordano; a philosopher of the 16th century, distinguished by the originality and poetical boldness of his speculations; born at Nola, in the Neapolitan territory; entered the order of Dominicans; took refuge, probably, from the persecutions which he drew upon himself by his religious doubts and his satires on the life of the monks, at Geneva, in 1582, where, however, he was soon persecuted, by the Calvinists, for his paradoxes and his violence; stood forth, in 1583, at Paris, as the antagonist of the Aristotelian philosophy, and as teacher of the ars Lulliana. Here he found many opponents, went to London, returned to Paris, and, from 1586 to 1588, taught his philosophy at Wittenberg. Why he left Wittenberg is not known; but it is certain that he went, in 1588, to Helmstadt, and he seems to have visited Prague before that year. Protected by duke Julius of Wolfenbüttel, he remained in Helmstadt till his protector died, in 1589. He was then engaged, at Frankfort on the Maine, with the publication of some works, but left this city, also, in 1592, and returned (it is not known for what purpose) to Italy. He remained for some time at Padua in tranquillity, until the inquisition of Venice arrested him, in 1598, and transferred him to Rome. After an imprisonment of two years, that he might have opportunity to retract his doctrines, he was burnt, Feb. 16th, 1600, for apostasy, heresy, and violation of his monastic vows. He suffered death, which he might have averted, even eight days before, by a recantation, with fortitude. Whilst his violent attacks on the prevailing doctrines of the Aristotelian philosophy, and on the narrow-minded Aristotelians themselves, every where created him enemies, his rashness and pride threw him into the hands of his ex

ecutioners. His philosophical writings, which have become very rare, display a classical cultivation of mind, a deep insight into the spirit of ancient philosophy, wit and satire, as well as a profound knowledge of mathematics and natural philosophy. Most of them were published between 1584 and 1591, as appears from the enumeration of the oldest editions in the Bibliographical Lexicon of Ebert (Lps., 1821, quarto, vol. i, p. 238 et seq.). In 1584 appeared, at Paris, his famous Spaccio della Bestia trionfante (a moral allegory, with many satirical strokes on his own times), also his work De la Causa, Principio et Uno (Venice and London, 1584), besides De l'Infinito, Universo, et Mondi. The former contains the foundation, the latter the application, of metaphysics to the natural world. The doctrine is a pure Pantheism, connected with truly dignified notions of God-a more complete Pantheistical system than had been previously exhibited, and which, since his time, Spinoza only, who, like Descartes, borrowed his ideas, has carried to a greater perfection. The notion that God is the soul of the universe, and the world endowed with organization and life, might have been forgiven by his contemporaries; but his inference that the world is infinite and immeasurable, and his doctrine of the plurality of worlds, at the moment when the new system of Copernicus was attacked from all quarters, could not but be looked upon as a crime. His writings are mostly in the form of dialogues, without any methodical order. His language is a strange mixture of Italian and Latin. His style is violent and fiery. The originality and loftiness of his ideas take a powerful hold on those who can understand him. His logical writings, in which he boldly and skilfully applies Raymond Lully's art of topical memory, are more obscure and less interesting. His belief in magic and astrology, notwithstanding his enlightened views of the nature of things, is to be attributed to the spirit of his age. He has also written poems, Heroici Furori, and, among others, a comedy, Il Candelajo. The most eminent philosophers since his time have borrowed much from him. Among recent writers, Schelling resembles him the most in his metaphysics and his philosophical views of nature, and has given his name to one of his philosophical writings (Bruno, oder über das göttliche und natürliche Princip der Dinge, Berl., 1802). On Bruno and his writings, see Sieber's

and Thanner's Lehrmeinungen berühmter Physiker (5 vols., Sulzb., 1824.)

BRUNONIAN SYSTEM. (See Excitement.) BRUNSWICK, FAMILY OF. The true founder of this ancient house was Azo II, marquis of Tuscany, who, in the 11th century, married Cunigunda, heiress of the counts of Altorf, and thus united the two houses of Este and Guelph. The previous history of the Este family is uncertain. Guelph, the son of Azo, was created duke of Bavaria in 1071. He married Judith of Flanders, who was descended from Alfred the Great of England. His posterity acquired Brunswick and Luneburg, and William, or his son Otho (1235), was the first who bore the title of duke of B. John, eldest son of Otho, founded the house of Luneburg. Albert the Great, a younger son of Otho, conquered Wolfenbüttel, and, on his death (1278), his three sons divided his dominions. Henry founded the house of Grubenhagen; Albert became duke of Brunswick, and William duke of BrunswickWolfenbüttel. Henry Julius, of this last branch, inherited Grubenhagen (1596). Ernest of Zell, of the second branch, who succeeded (1532), conquered the territories of Wolfenbüttel, and left two sons, by whom the family was divided into the two branches of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (II) and Brunswick-Hanover; from the latter of which comes the present royal family of England. The former is the German family, now in possession of the duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. (q. v.) Charles William married Augusta, sister of George III of England (1764). His descendants are presumptive heirs to the throne of Great Britain in case of a failure of the direct line. Ernest Augustus, of the Brunswick-Hanover house, was created elector of Hanover in 1692. He married Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, the daughter of James I of England. George Louis, son of Ernest Augustus and Sophia, succeeded his father, as elector of Hanover, in 1698, and was called to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, by act of parliament passed in the reign of queen Anne, which vested the succession in the Protestant line of James I. George IV, the present king of Great Britain and Ireland, and of Hanover (made a kingdom in 1815), is the 23d of the family of Brunswick by lineal descent from Azo; the 53d king of England from Egbert, and is descended from Woden, the head of the ancient Saxon family, from which so many sovereigns of Europe have sprung, by 52 genera

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tions. (See the articles George, Hanover, England, &c.)

In

BRUNSWICK; the duchy of BrunswickWolfenbüttel, in Germany, situated in the former circle of Lower Saxony, and bordering upon Luneburg on the north and Westphalia on the west. The duke holds the 12th rank among the members of the German confederation. The duchy comprises 1500 square miles, and 232,000 inhabitants. It is divided into six districts, besides the two cities of Brunswick and Wolfenbüttel, which are also considered as districts. The family of B. (q. v.) is one of the most ancient in Europe. 1806, the duchy was annexed, by Napoleor, to the kingdom of Westphalia, but its native prince, Frederic William (q. v.), was restored by the peace of Leipsic, 1813. The reigning duke, Charles, born Oct. 30th, 1804, succeeded to the government in 1824. The revenue, exclusive of Oels (q. v.), is 2,000,000 florins. The circumstances and manners of the inhabitants resemble those of the adjacent countries. Most of the people are Lutherans. The whole number of Catholics and Calvinists does not probably exceed 4000. The ducal house is Lutheran. (For the form of government, see Constitutions.)-B. has, with Nassau, one vote in the diet of the German states; and has, by itself, two votes in the general assembly. Its contingent of troops to the army of the confederacy is 2096 men. The most important articles of trade and manufacture are corn, rape-seed, flax, tobacco, chicory, hops, madder and wood. The country affords sheep, swine, goats, poultry and bees in sufficient quantities to supply the inhabitants. Some fat cattle and horses are imported. In the forests there are wild boars, deer, hares, heath-cocks, black-cocks, partridges and hazel grouse; but, as no attempts are made to preserve the game, the quantity gradually decreases. The mountainous tracts yield iron, copper, salt, marble, coal, porcelain earth and other minerals. In the Rammelsberg are found silver, copper, lead, arsenic, vitriol and sulphur, and small quantities of gold. Large tracts are covered with peat, in the sandy regions in the northern districts. The breweries and distilleries of spirit, the spinning of linen yarn (the most extensive branch of industry), the manufacture of linen and leather, the preparation of paper, soap, tobacco, sal-ammoniac, madder and chicory afford the principal employment of the people. The lackered wares and porcelain of B. are famous