and that there is a species more intoxicating than wine. He says, further, that, in Spain, it is called celia and ceria; but, in Gaul and in other provinces of the Roman empire, cerevisia; that it was in general use among the ancient Germans, who also called it cerevisia (from Ceres, the goddess of grain, and vis, power.) The Egyptians, as the first promoters of agriculture, are said to have invented beer, and to have prepared a kind, in later times, at Pelusium, which was called by the name of that city, and was much celebrated. Beer was afterwards unknown in Egypt, until the French army introduced it anew, since which it is said that beer is still brewed there. We are ignorant how far the beer of the ancients resembled the modern article. The word beer may most naturally be derived from bibere, to drink.

BEER, Michael, sometimes called Michael Berr, a learned Jew in Paris, born at Nancy, in 1784, was the first of his religion who pursued the profession of an advocate in France. His success in this career was brilliant; but he soon gave himself up exclusively to literature, and received the honor, never before conferred on a Jew, of being admitted into the learned academies of France. He was elected a member of the royal society of antiquaries, of the philotechnic society, of the academies of Nancy, Strasburg, Nantes and Göttingen. Napoleon invited him, in 1807, to the assembly of Jews, who were to advise concerning the amelioration of the condition of that people; and the general sanhedrim for France and Italy chose him their secretary. At the erection of the kingdom of Westphalia, on account of his knowledge of the language of the country, he received an appointment in the ministry of the interior, and, afterwards, was appointed to a corresponding office in the French ministry: he also delivered a course of lectures on German literature in the athenæum of Paris. Among his numerous works is an Eloge de Charles Villers.

BEERING, Vitus, captain in the Russian navy, born at Horsens, in Jutland, being a skilful seaman, was employed by Peter the Great in the navy which he had newly established at Cronstadt. His talents, and the undaunted courage display ed by him in the naval wars against the Swedes, procured him the honor of being chosen to command a voyage of discovery in the sea of Kamtschatka. He set out from Petersburg, Feb. 5, 1725, for Siberia. In the year 1728, he examined the north

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ern coasts of Kamtschatka as far as lat. 67° 18′ N., and proved that Asia is not united to America. It remained, however, to be determined whether the land opposite to Kamtschatka was, in reality, the coast of the American continent, or merely islands lying between Asia and America. June 4, 1741, he sailed, with two ships, from Ochotsk, and touched the north-western coast of America, between lat. 35° and 69° N. Tempests and sickness prevented him from pursuing his discoveries: he was cast on a desolate island, covered with snow and ice, where he grew dangerously sick, and died Dec. 8, 1741. The straits between Asia and America have received the name of Beering's straits (also called Anian), and the island on which he died that of Beering's island. (See Müller's Voyages et Découv. faites par les Russes, Amsterdam, 1766).

BEERING'S ISLAND; an island in N. Pacific ocean, about 90 miles long, and 25 to 30 wide; lon. 163° 12′ to 164° 12′ E.; lat. 54° 45' to 56° 10' N. Neither thunder nor the aurora borealis have ever been observed here. The island has springs of excellent water, and beautiful cataracts. No animals are found here but ice-foxes, seals, sea-bears, sea-lions, sea-cows, &c. wood grows here, but several kinds of plants are seen. The island is uninhabited. It was discovered by Vitus Beering (q. v.) in 1741. It is sometimes classed with the Aleutian chain.

No

BEERING'S STRAITS; the narrow sea between the north-west coast of N. America and the north-east coast of Asia; 39 miles wide in the narrowest part; lon. 168° 15′ to 169° 20′ W.; lat. 65° ‍46′ to 65° 52 N. There is a remarkable similarity in the portions of both continents north of the strait: both are without wood; the coasts are low, but, farther from the sea, they rise and form considerable mountains. The depth, in the middle of the straits, is from 29 to 30 fathoms; towards the land, the water on the Asiatic side is deeper. Captain Vancouver, who visited these shores in 1740, gave this name to the straits in honor of Vitus Beering (q. v.), because he thinks that he anchored there. Some have also called these straits Cook's straits.

BEET (beta vulgaris) is a well-known valuable succulent root, which is cultivated in our kitchen gardens, and grows wild in several countries of the south of Europe. There are two principal vari eties of beet, one of which is of a deep red or purple color, and the other is white, crossed with bands of red.-Red beet is

principally used at table, in salad, boiled, and cut into slices, as a pickle, and sometimes stewed with onions; but, if eaten in great quantity, it is said to be injurious to the stomach. The beet may be taken out of the ground for use about the end of August, but it does not attain its full size and perfection till the month of October. When good, it is large, and of a deep red color, and, when boiled, is tender, sweet and palatable. It has lately been ascertained, that beet roots may be substituted for malt, if deprived of the greater part of their juice by pressure, then dried, and treated in the same manner as the grain intended for brewing. The beer made from the beet has been found perfectly wholesome and palatable, and little inferior to that prepared from malt.-From the white beet the French, during the late wars in Europe, endeavored to prepare sugar, that article, as British colonial produce, having been prohibited in France. For this purpose, the roots were boiled as soon as possible after they were taken from the earth. When cold, they were sliced, and afterwards the juice was pressed out, and evaporated to the consistence of sirup. The sugar was cbtained from this sirup by crystallization. 110 pounds weight of the roots yielded 413 pounds of juice, which, on further evaporation, afforded somewhat more than 4 pounds of brown sugar; and these, by a subsequent operation, produced 4 pounds of well-grained white powder sugar. The residuum, together with the sirup or molasses which remained, produced, after distillation, 33 quarts of rectified spirit, somewhat similar to rum. But many subsequent experiments, both in France and in Prussia, have tended to prove, that sugar can never be advantageously manufactured from the beet upon a large scale, it yielding, upon a fair average, barely enough to defray the expenses of making. The leaves of the beet, when raised in richly-manured soil, have been found to yield a considerable quantity of pure nitre, proceeding, in all probability, from the decomposition of the animal matter contained in the manure; but this, like the sugar of the root, will probably never pay the expenses of cultivation, which will also increase rather than diminish; so that it may be considered valuable, at present, only as an esculent plant. The French, however, and other European nations, still persevere in manufacturing beet sugar, and make great quantities of it, although it can never supersede the use of common sugar, unless

its production be encouraged by bounties and prohibitions.

BEETHOVEN, Louis von, born in Bonn, 1772, was the son of a man who had been a tenor singer in that place (according to another account, in Fayolle's Dictionary of Musicians, a natural son of Frederic William II, king of Prussia). His great talent for music was early cultivated. He astonished, in his eighth year, all who heard him, by his execution on the violin, on which he was in the habit of performing, with great diligence, in a little garret. In his 11th year, he played Bach's Wohl Temperirtes clavier, and, in his 13th, composed some sonatas. These promising appearances of great talent induced the then reigning elector of Cologne to send him, in 1792, in the character of his organist, and at his expense, to Vienna, that he might accomplish himself there in composition, under the instruction of Haydn. Under Haydn and Albrechtsberger he made rapid progress, and became, likewise, a great player on the piano forte, astonishing every one by his extempore performances. In 1809, he was invited to the new court of the king of Westphalia, at which several men of distinction, and among them his pupil in music the archduke Rodolph, now bishop of Olmütz, persuaded him to remain, by the promise of a yearly salary. He composed his principal works after 1801. A few years before his death, a cold, which he had caught by composing in the open air, produced a deafness, which became, by degrees, very great. He lived, afterwards, very much retired, in the village of Módlingen, near Vienna. Instrumental music has received from his compositions a new character. Beethoven united the humor of Haydn with the melancholy of Mozart, and the character of his music most resembles Cherubini's. His boldness is remarkable. Reichhardt, in a comparison of Beethoven with Haydn and Mozart, says, "The Quartett of Haydn was the offspring of his amiable and original character.

In naivete and good humor he is unrivalled. The more powerful nature and richer imagination of Mozart embraced a wider field, and many of his compositions express the whole height and depth of his character. He placed more value also on exquisite finish. Beethoven, early acquainted with Mozart's compositions, gave a still bolder cast to his ideas." Besides his great symphonies and over tures, his quintetts, quartetts, and trios for stringed instruments, his numerous sonatas, variations, and other pieces for

the piano forte, in which he shows the great richness of his imagination, he also composed vocal music, but with less success. To this department belongs his opera Leonore (in its altered state, called Fidelio), some masses, an oratorio (Christ on the Mount of Olives), and songs for the piano forte, among which the composition of Matthison's Adelaide, called, by the English, Rosalie, and some songs of Goethe are celebrated. B. died March 26th, 1827, near Vienna, in the greatest poverty.

BEETLE (scarabæus, L.); a tribe of coleopterous insects, belonging to the family lamellicornua, C. The beetle tribe comprises a large number of insects, among which some are very remarkable for projections or horns growing from the head and corselet. The species found in warm climates are generally of large size and formidable appearance, though by no means noxious. They all are winged, flying with much rapidity and force; when on the ground, their movements are slow and heavy. The body of the perfect insect is oval, or nearly so, and the antennæ are composed of eight or ten pieces, inserted into a cavity under the border of the head. From the arrangement of the antennæ, which is peculiar to this family, its essential or distinctive character is formed. The extremities of the antennæ are clubshaped, and composed of plates or joints, either disposed like the leaves of a book, or arranged perpendicularly to the axis, like the teeth of a comb. The two first legs of beetles, and even the others, in some instances, are dentated externally, and suited for burrowing. The trachea are all vesicular. The larves or young are soft, flexible, whitish, semi-cylindric worms, having the body divided into 12 rings, and having a scaly head, armed with strong jaws. They have nine stigmata, or breathing holes, on each side; and the feet, which are six, are scaly. The body is thicker at the posterior than at the anterior extremity, rounded, and almost uniformly curved downwards, so that the larve moves with difficulty over an even surface, and frequently tumbles down. The period during which the larves remain in the state of destructive worms varies in different species; those of some kinds becoming nymphs at the end of several months, and of others, not sooner than in three or four years. During this period, they live in the earth, where they feed upon the roots of vegetables, animal matter in a state of decomposition, &c. It is in this stage of their existence that

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various species prove exceedingly injuri ous to farmers, from their great numbers and voracity. When about to undergo their change of form, they make an eggshaped cover or cocoon from fragments gnawed off wood, &c., which are stuck together by a peculiar glutinous fluid furnished by their bodies. The larves have a cylindric stomach, surrounded by three ranges of minute caca, a very short, small intestine, an exceedingly large colon, and moderate-sized rectum. In the perfect insect, none of these inequalities exist, as there is but one long intestine, of equal size throughout. All of the beetle tribe are not destructive or injurious in their inceptive state, as many of them breed in the dung-heap, or feed upon the excrement of animals, which they serve to prepare more completely as manure. The tumble-bug, which is well known, forms a ball of dung, in the centre of which the egg is deposited, rolls it off to a distance, and buries it in the ground. Great numbers, uniting in this work, speedily clear away excrementitious matter, that might otherwise soon prove offensive. Among the ancient Egyptians, a species of beetle was held in great veneration, and Eusebius informs us (De Præp. Evang.) that it was regarded as the animated image of the sun. We find it generally embalmed with the Egyptian mummies, placed immediately upon the root of the nose. A number of models of these insects, in clay and stone, have been found in the places already explored in the ancient dominion of the Pharaohs. Linnæus bestowed the name of scarabæus sacer on this species, which is found in Africa and Europe.

BEFANA (Ital.; from Befania, which signifies Epiphany) is a figure, generally representing an old woman, which is exhibited, in Italy, on the day of Epiphany, by children, or in shops, &c., where things for children are sold. In Germany, presents are given to children on Christmas-eve, and in France, on new-year's evening, but in Italy, on the day of Epiphany, and it is said that the befana brings them to good children. Generally, a little bag is hung in the chimney, and, next morning, the children find the presents there.

BEG (prince, or lord); the title of certain Turkish officers, several of whom are subject to a beglerbeg. (See Bey.)

BEGGARY. (See Pauperism.)

BEGLERBEG (prince of princes, or lord of lords) is the title of a high officer among the Turks, the governor of a province, called a beglerbeglic, who has under him

several sangiacs, begs, agas, &c. The governors of Sophia, Kintaha and Damascus, in particular, have this title. BEGUARDS, or BEGHARDS. (See Beguines.)

BEGUINES (begutta); females who, without having taken the monastic vows, or bound themselves to obey the rules of an order, unite for the purpose of devotion and charity, and form societies, living together in houses called beguinages (which have been frequently enriched by donations), distinguishing themselves, above others of the laity, by their industry, their retired life, and their attention to the education of children. These societies originate 1, towards the end of the 11th century, in Germany and the Netherlands, and were very flourishing in the 12th and 13th centuries. They still exist in considerable numbers in the Netherlands. In imitation of them, males formed similar societies, under the name of beghards. These societies, whose names signify suppliants, or beggars, underwent many persecutions from the jealousy of the clerical orders, and were sometimes confounded with the Lollards. (See Brotherhoods.) There are, in some places of Germany, beguinages, which are, however, only eleemosynary institutions, where unmarried females, of the lower class of people, have a lodging free of expense, and enjoy some other advantages.

BEHAIM, Martin, born at Nuremberg, about 1430, is distinguished as one of the most learned mathematicians and astronomers of his age. He was engaged in commerce, and travelled, for the purpose of carrying on his business, from 1455 to 1479; but he also devoted himself to the study of the mathematical and nautical sciences, in which Regiomontanus is said to have been his master. He went from Antwerp to Lisbon, in 1480, where he was received with marks of distinction. He sailed in the fleet of Diego Can, on a voyage of discovery, and explored the islands on the coast of Africa as far as the river Zaire. He is also said to have discovered, or, at least, to have colonized, the island of Fayal, where he remained for several years, and assisted in the discovery of the other Azores. He was afterwards knighted, and returned to his native country, where he constructed a terrestrial globe, in 1492, which bears the marks of the imperfect acquaintance of that age with the true dimensions of the earth. B. died, after many voyages, in Lisbon, 1506. Some ancient Spanish historians assert that he made many discoveries, and that

he gave to his friend Columbus the idea of another hemisphere. Robertson (in his History of America) and others contradict this statement. It is also rejected by Irving.

BEHEADING; a capital punishment, wherein the head is severed from the body by the stroke of an axe, sword, or other cutting instrument. Decollatio, or beheading, was a military punishment among the Romans. In early times, it was performed with an axe, and afterwards with a sword. It is worth remarking, that, in all countries where beheading and hanging are used as capital punishments, the former is always considered less ignominious. Thus, in England, beheading is often the punishment of nobles, when commoners, for the same crime, are hanged. The crime of high treason is there punished with beheading. Commoners, however, are hanged before the head is cut off, and nobles also, unless the king remits that part of the punishment. In Prussia, formerly, a nobleman could not be hanged, and, if his crime was such that the law required this punishment, he was degraded before the execution. At present, hanging is not used in that country, and, since so many instances have occurred of extreme suffering, on the part of the criminal, caused by the unskilfulness of the executioner in beheading with the sword, this mode of execution has been abolished. Beheading, in Prussia, is now always performed with a heavy axe, the sufferer being previously tied to a block. In France, during the revolutionary government, beheading by means of a machine, the guillotine (q. v.), came into use, and still prevails there, to the exclusion of all other modes of capital punishment. A person who has murdered his father or mother, however, has his right arm cut off the moment before he is guillotined. In the middle ages, it was, in some states, the duty of the youngest magistrate to perform the executions with the sword. In China, it is well known that beheading is practised, sometimes accompanied with the most studied torments. In the U. States of America, beheading is unknown, the halter being the only instrument of capital punishment. Respecting the bad or good consequences of public beheading, the same remarks may be made, which are applicable to public executions in general. In many European countries, beheading with the sword still prevails.

BEнN, Aphara, a lady of some celebrity as a writer of plays and novels, was de

scended from a good family in Canterbury, of the name of Johnson, and was born in the reign of Charles I. Her father, through the interest of his relation, lord Willoughby, being appointed lieutenantgeneral of Surinam, embarked with his family for the West Indies, taking with him Aphara, who was then very young. The father died at sea; but his family arrived safely at Surinam, and remained there some years, during which time Aphara became acquainted with the American prince Oroonoko, whom she made the subject of a novel, subsequently dramatized by Southern. On her return to England, she married Mr. Behn, a merchant of London, of Dutch extraction; but was probably a widow when selected by Charles II as a proper person to acquire intelligence on the continent during the Dutch war. She accordingly took up her residence at Antwerp, where she engaged in gallantries for the good of her country; and it is said that, by means of one of her admirers, she obtained advice of the intention of the Dutch to sail up the Thames, which she transmitted to England. This intelligence, although true, being discredited, she gave up politics, returned to England, and devoted herself to intrigue and writing for support; and, as she had a good person and much conversational talent, she became fashionable among the men of wit and pleasure of the time. She published three volumes of poems, by Rochester, Etherege, Crisp and others, with some poetry of her own; and wrote 17 plays, the heartless licentiousness of which was disgraceful both to her sex and to the age which tolerated the performance of them. She was also the author of a couple of volumes of novels, and of the celebrated love-letters between a nobleman and his sister-inlaw (lord Gray and lady Henrietta Berkeley). Pope, in his character of women, alludes to Mrs. Behn, under her poetical name of Astrea:

The stage how loosely does Astrea tread, Who fairly puts all characters to bed. She died in 1689, between 40 and 50 years of age, and was buried in the cloisters of Westminster abbey.

Behring, BehrING'S STRAITS, BEHRING'S ISLAND. (See Beering.)

BEIRA; a province of Portugal, bounded chiefly by the river Douro on the north, by Spain on the east, by the Tagus and Portuguese Estremadura on the south, and by the Atlantic on the west. Its extent is computed at 11,000 square miles, and the population at nearly 900,000, 4

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which is about 82 persons to a square mile, or rather less than the average number for the whole kingdom. B. contains 7 episcopal cities, and about 230 other towns: the chief one is Coimbra. (q. v.) It is mountainous and well watered. The produce of wine and olives is considerable. (See Portugal.)

BEIRAM. (See Bairam.)

BEKKER, Elizabeth; an ornament of Dutch literature in the department of the belles-lettres. Few female authors have united with so great talents so much dignity and purity of morals. The influence of her numerous works was much increased by her character, and several of them are considered classics in Dutch literature, particularly her romances Willem Leevend, in 8 vols.; Letters of A. Blankart to C. Wildschut, and the History of Sara Bürgerhart. She wrote her most important works in conjunction with her friend Agatha Deken (q. v.), and the share of each in the composition of them is unknown.' Elizabeth was born at Flushing, in 1738, and died at the Hague, in 1804. Her inseparable friend in life followed her nine days later in death.

BEKKER, Immanuel, member of the academy of sciences, and professor in the university of Berlin, is known for his learning in the ancient languages, particularly the Greek, displayed in many valuable works. He was born at Berlin, in 1785. He was a pupil of the famous philologer Wolf, at Halle, who declared him the person most capable of continuing his researches in philology. B. was appointed professor in the new academy of Berlin, and set out, May, 1810, for Paris, where he remained until Dec., 1812, and made use of the manuscripts of the library, principally collating those of Plato, and some rhetorical and grammatical writers. The academy of sciences of Berlin elected him a member in 1815, and sent him back to Paris to examine the papers of Fourmont, for the sake of a Corpus Inscriptionum Græcarum, which they intended to publish. He returned the same year. In 1817, he was sent to Italy, to examine, with his colleague Göschen, the Institutions of Gaius at Verona, discovered by Niebuhr in a Codex rescriptus, and to prepare an edition of Aristotle, which the academy had in view. He spent two winters in Rome, particularly favored in the use of the libraries by means of his friend Niebuhr. In 1819, he went through Turin to Paris; spent the summer of 1820 in England, principally in Oxford, Cambridge and London; and returned through