of its surfaces; or at least to one of the arrisses, and perpendicular to the other two sides, or at least to one of them, obliquely to the fibres.

2123. The straight edge is a slip of wood made perfectly straight on the edge, in order to make other edges straight, or to plane the face of a board straight. It is made of different lengths, according to the required magnitude of the work. Its use is obvious, as its application will show whether there is a coincidence between the straight edge and the surface to which it is applied. When joiners wish to ascertain whether the whole surface of a piece of wood lies in the same plane, they use two slips, each straightened on one edge, with the opposite edge parallel, and both pieces of the same breadth between the parallel edges; whence each piece has two straight edges or two parallel planes. To find, therefore, whether a board is twisted, one of the slips is placed across one end and the other across the other end of the board, with one of the straight edges of each upon the surface. The joiner then looks in a longitudinal direction over the upper edges of the two slips, until his eye and the said two edges are in one plane; or otherwise the intersection of the plane passing through the eye and the upper edge of the nearest slip will intersect the upper edge of the farthest slip. If it happen as in the former case, the ends of the wood under the slips are in the same plane; but should it happen as in the latter, they are not. In the last case, the surface is said to wind; and when the surface is so reduced as for every two lines to be in one plane, it is said to be out of winding, which is the same as to say it is a perfect plane. From the use of these slips, they are denominated winding sticks.

The

2124. The mitre square, an instrument so called because it bisects the right angle or mitres the square, is an immoveable bevel, for the purpose of striking an angle of 45 degrees with one side or edge of a piece of stuff upon the adjoining side or edge of the said piece of stuff. It consists of a broad thin board, let or tongued into a piece on the edge called the fence or handle, which projects equally on each side of the blade, whereof one of the edges is made to contain an angle of 45 degrees with the nearest edge of the handle, or of that in which the blade is inserted. The inside of the handle is called the guide. handle may be about an inch thick, 2 inches broad; the blade about to of an inch thick, and about 7 or 8 inches broad. As the different sorts of mouldings used in architecture will be hereafter properly defined and treated on, we shall not now stop to describe them otherwise than as immediately connected with the section under consideration. The wood used for joinery is of two sorts, white and yellow deal; the first for panelling, and the last for framing. Of late years, much American wood has been used in joinery, both for panels and frames. It works easily, is soft, free from knots, but more liable to warp than white deal.

2125. The arris of a piece of stuff is the edge formed by two planes.

MOULDINGS.

2126. When the edge of a piece of wood is reduced to a cylindrical form, it is said to be rounded, which is the simplest kind of moulded work. (Fig. 740.) When a portion of the arris is made semicylindrical, so that the surface of the cylindrical part is flush both with the face and edge of the wood, with a groove or sinking made in the face only, the cylindrical part is called a bead, and the sinking a quirk; the whole combination (fig. 741.) being called a quirked bead.

2127. If a quirk is also formed on the other or returning face, so as to make the rounded part at the angle three fourths of a cylinder, the moulding (see fig. 742.) is called a bead and double quirk.

2128. If two semicylindrical mouldings both rise from a plane parallel to the face, and one comes close to the edge of the piece and the other has a quirk on the further side, and its surface flush with the face of the wood, as in fig. 743., the combination is called a double bead or double bead and quirk, wherein the bead next to the edge of the stuff is much smaller than the other.

2129. Mouldings are usually separated from one another, and often terminated by two narrow planes at right angles (fig. 744.) to each other: these are called fillets, and show two sides of a rectangular prism. The different pieces of the combination of mouldings are called members. A semicylindrical moulding, rising from a plane parallel to the face, and terminated on the edge by a fillet (fig. 745.), is called a torus. In the figure there are two hemicylindrical mouldings, whence that is called a double torus. The reader must observe that the distinction between torus mouldings and beads in joinery is, that the outer edge of the former always terminates with a fillet, whether the torus be single or double;

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whereas a bead never has a fillet on the outer edge. A repetition of equal semicylindrical mouldings, springing from a plane or cylindrical surface, is called reeds. In joinery, the, cima recta, and reverse. The ovolo so named from its egg-like form, and the quarter round, the fourth part of a cylindrical surface, are the remaining of the principal mouldings used in joinery. When the margin of any framing terminates on the edges next to the panel, with one or more mouldings, which both advance before and retire from the face of the framing to the panelling, the mouldings thus introduced are called bolection mouldings.

cima reversa, are called respectively the ogee and ogee

DOORS.

In

C

A

C B

A

D

D

A

BE

A

2130. We shall now more particularly address ourselves to the subject of doors and their mouldings. A door, properly made, is formed by framing and fitting pieces of stuff together of the same thickness; those which are horizontal (fig. 746.) AAAA being called rails, and those which are vertical BBBB being called styles. These form a skeleton into which panels, usually of a less thickness, are fitted. And this, indeed, is the general practice in all systems of framed joinery. doors, the upper rails are called top rails; the next in descending, frize rails; the next, which are usually wider than the two first, are called the lock or middle rails; and the lowest, from their situation, are called bottom rails. The styles on the flanks are called outside styles, and those in the middle are called middle styles. The panels are also named from their situations on the door; thus CC, being the uppermost, are called frize panels; the next DD are called Fig. 746. middle panels, and EE bottom panels. The rails and styles are wedged together, being previously morticed and tenoned into each other. The student should, however, to obtain a clear comprehension of the method adopted, see a door put together at the bench. The varieties and forms of doors are dependent upon the will of the architect, from whom the design of the whole emanates; it will be, therefore, here sufficient to mention the three sorts, viz. the common door, just described; the jib door, which is made with the same finishings and appearance as the room in which it is placed, so as not to have the appearance of a door; and, lastly, folding doors, which open from the centre of the doorway, and are used for making a wider communication between two apartments than a common door will permit, or, in other words, to lay two rooms into one.

2131. Though the panelling of framed work is generally sunk within the face of the framing, it is for outside work sometimes made flush. In the best flush work, the panels are surrounded with a bead formed on the edge of the framing, and the work is called bead and flush. In the commoner kind of flush framing, the bead is run only on the two edges of the panel in the direction of the fibres, and is called bead and butt.

2132. The different denominations of framed doors, according to their mouldings and panels and framed work in general, are as follows. The figures by which they are represented are sections of doors through one of the styles, wherein only a small part of the panel is shown, or they may be equally considered as vertical sections, through the top rail and part of the panel below it.

2133. Fig. 747. represents the commonest door. It is without mouldings, and the panel is a straight surface on both sides. It is technically described, first mentioning the number

Fig. 747.

Fig. 748.

Fig. 749.

Fig. 750.

Fig. 751.

of panels intended in it, as a door square and flat panel on both sides. We shall not, in the following, repeat the observation as to the number of panels, that being always supposed as mentioned.

2134. Fig. 748. represents the rail and panel of a door, with a quirked ovolo and a

fillet on one side, but having no mouldings on the other.

The panel flat on both sides, it

is described as a door with quirked ovolo, fillet and flat with square back. 2135. Fig. 749. only differs from the last in having a bead instead of a fillet, and is described as quirked ovolo, bead and flat panel with square back.

2136. Fig. 750., with an additional fillet on the framing, is described as quirked ovolo, bead fillet and flat panel with square back. The back, in the foregoing and following cases, is described as square, because of its having no mouldings on the framing, and of the panel being a straight surface on one side of the door.

2137. In fig. 751. the framing is formed with a quirked ogee, and a quirked bead on one side and square on the other, the surface of the panel being straight on both sides, and the door is described as quirked ogee, quirked bead and flat panel with square back.

2138. Fig. 752. only differs from the last in the bead being raised above the lower part of the ogee and a fillet. It is described as quirked ogee, cocked bead and flat panel with square back.

2139. Fig. 758. is described as a door with cove, cocked bead, flat panel and square back.

2140. Fig. 754. is a combination, by which much strength is imparted to the door, and it is therefore much used for external doors. It is, however, often in the interior of houses, and is described, quirked ovolo, bead fillet and raised panel on front and square back. It is from the raising of the panel that the additional strength is acquired.

2141. Fig. 755. resembles the last in general appearance, the difference being in the ovolo on the raised panel. It is described, quirked ovolo, bead and raised panel, with ovolo on the raised panel and square back. When an external door has raised panels, they are always placed towards the exterior.

Fig. 756

Fig. 758.

2142. In fig. 756. there are more mouldings than in the last on the raised panel. It is described, quirked ogee, raised panel with ovolo and fillet on the rising and astragal on the flat of panel in front and square back.

2143. Fig. 757. is described, quirked ovolo, bead fillet and flat panel on both sides. This description of doors is used where a handsome appearance is to be equally preserved on both sides of the door, as between rooms, or between halls or principal passages and

rooms.

2144. Fig. 758. is a combination used, as all bead butt and bead flush work is, where strength is required. The form here given is described, bead and flush front and quirked ogee, raised panel with ovolo on the rising, grooved on flat panel on back.

2145. The series of mouldings are, as we have before mentioned, called bolection mouldings (fig. 759.), and are laid in after the door is framed square and put together. They

project beyond the framing on each side. When bradded on through the sides of the quirks, the heads of the brads will be entirely concealed; but it is to be observed that, in driving the brads, they must not be directed towards the panels, but into the solid of the framing. The form of these bolection mouldings is of course varied according to the pleasure of the architect.

SHUTTERS.

2146. Shutters, which are the doors of window openings, are framed upon the same principles as doors themselves; but their backs are very often flush. In the better sort of buildings they are folded into recesses called boxings, whereof we shall give a figure below as an example of the ordinary method; but as the extent and different forms of windows vary, the ingenuity of the architect will be often required to contrive his shutters within a very small space. Into minutia we cannot enter in a work of this nature; however, in all their shapes, they are dependent on the leading principles given.

2147. Fig. 760. is a plan of the shutters, architrave, sash-frame, and part of the sash of common shutters. The cavity which forms the boxing into which the sashes fold is formed by the ground B (upon which the architrave A is nailed), the back lining F of the boxing, and the inside lining G of the sash frame, whereof H is the inside bead. L is the outside lining of the sash-frame, M the back lining of it, and K the parting bead, so called from parting the upper and lower sash. The vacant space between the pulley piece I and M, is a cavity which contains the weights for balancing the sashes, N shows the plan of the sash. The shutters, when stretched out in their different folds, are supposed to cover one half of the window, another series being supposed to be placed on the other side of it. The front shutter CCC is hung by hinges at a to the inside lining G of the sash-frame. inner shutters DDD and EE are called the back flaps, the former whereof is hinged on to the front shutter at b, and the latter is hinged on to DDD at c. It will be immediately seen that these will thus altogether turn upon the hinges at a, and cover, in one straight line, from both sides, the whole of the light of the window; it being contrived that each boxing shall contain as many shutters as will cover one half, that is, from the centre of the hinge to the centre of the window. When the boxes are scanty, the hinge may be placed as shown in X attached to the figure.

The

2148. It would be impossible to place before the reader the infinite variety of examples required for the application of shutters to windows; in ordinary cases,

Fig. 760.

On occa

the example we have given will sufficiently exhibit the method to be adopted. sions wherein it is not applicable, the architect must apply himself to the work pro re natâ, in which, with very little attention, he will not find insurmountable difficulty.

HINGEING.

2149. A very essential consideration in the neatness and beauty of joiners' work, is the formation of the joints on which are placed the hinges of doors and shutters. They ought to be so continued as to preserve the uniformity of the door or shutter on both sides, and as much as possible to be close enough to exclude a rush of air between the edges of the bodies to be hinged together, which, in this cold climate, is essential. In these joints, both angles of one of the bodies is usually beaded, to conceal the open space, which would otherwise be seen; and for preserving the appearance of the work, the hinges are made of such a curvature towards the eye, as to seem, when painted, a part of the bead itself on that side where the knuckle is placed, so that when hung the whole may appear to be one bead.

2150. The section of a door style, and part of the hanging E style at the joint, are represented in A and B (fig. 761.), wherein the centre of the bead on each side is in the line of r the straight part of the joint from the opposite side. In this figure, C is the centre of the bead, AG part of the joint in a line with its edge. Joining AC, draw AB perpendicular thereto. The other part BH is perpendicular to EF, which

Fig. 761.

is the face of the door or hanging style. This is a joint suitable for many purposes, and may be made with common hinges. If crooked, it will assist in excluding the current of air, a point of no mean importance in this climate.

2151. In fig. 762. A and B exhibit a plane joint, beaded similarly on both sides. In this case, the plane of the joint is a tangent to the cylindrical surfaces of the two beads; and as the margin on each side is alike, no check to the rush of cold air is afforded.

The

hinge, moreover, is such that it cannot be made in the usual manner, but must be formed as at C.

开

Fig. 762.

B

Fig. 763.

Fig. 764.

2152. Fig. 763. A and B represent a hinging wherein the plane of the joint from one side is directed to the axis of the bead on the other. The principle in it is the same as that in fig. 761., and it may therefore be hinged with common hinges, as shown in C, in which the two parts are conjoined. The methods shown in this and fig. 761. are useful in cases wherein a part of the margin is concealed on one side of the door.

2153. Fig. 764. A and B exhibit the beads of similar size on each side, and exactly opposite to each other, the joint being broken by indenting a part terminated by a plane directed to the axis of the two opposite beads. The hinges are required merely of the common form, the arrangement is strong, and the apartment rendered comfortable by their use. In C the parts are shown as hinged together.

2154. In fig. 765. the beads are on both sides, but not on the same piece, as in the last figure. The appearance is uniform, but the bead, which projects the whole of its thickness, is weakened. The junction is seen in the representation at C.

Fig. 765.

Fig. 766.

Fig. 767.

2155. Fig. 766. is a method that has been adopted for concealing the hinges of shutters. A is the inner bead of the sash-frame, B the inside lining, C the style of the shutter. For the form of the joint, let af be the face of the shutter, perpendicular to ar the face of the inside lining. Let the angle f, a, r be bisected by the straight line aa, and in the centre take c. Draw dd perpendicular to aa, cutting it in c, which is the centre of the hinge. From c, as a centre, describe the arc am, which must be hollowed out from the inside lining of the sash through the height of the shutter. In order to make room for the opening and shutting of the hinge, the internal right angle of the shutter must be cut out of its edge to the breadth of the hinges. The toils of the hinge are here for the purpose of strengthening them, represented of different lengths.

2156. In fig. 767. the hinges, which are for a door, are concealed, as the door allows it in the thickness of the wood, the ends of the hinges being of equal lengths.

2157. Fig. 768. shows the common method

of hingeing shutters, a mode wherein the whole thickness of the hinge is let into the thickness of the shutter, the inside lining being assumed as too thin to afford sufficient hold for the screws employed to fasten them.

Fig. 768.

Fig. 769.

2158. Fig. 769. exhibits the hanging of a door with the centres concealed. Let ad be the side of the jamb in contact with the edge of the door; bisect it in b, and draw be perpendicular to ad, make be equal to ba or bd, and join ac and cd; from c, as a centre, describe the arc aed, which will show the portion to be hollowed out of the jamb. The centres are fixed to the upper and under parts of the door, and the former is to be so constructed as to allow its being taken out of the socket to unhang the door when required.

2159. Shutters are usually hung in the way represented in fig. 770., wherein the centre