CHAP. IV. MEDIUM OF EXPRESSION. SECT. I. DRAWING IN GENERAL. 2381. UNDER this section it is not our intention to enter into the refinements of the art, but merely to make the attempt of directing the student to the first principles of a faithful representation of ordinary and familiar objects, with all their imperfections; or, in other words, of transferring to a plane surface what the artist actually sees or conceives in his mind. This power is of vital importance to the architect, and without it he is unworthy the name. The practice, in these days, of employing draughtsmen to make drawings for competitions, is not less disgraceful to those who have recourse to such a practice, than to the committees and other bodies, who are, in nine cases out of ten, grievously misled and deceived by the practice. Every work in a competition should be strictly limited to lines in its representation, and without colour or shadow. It is not very long since that, in a great competition, we saw drawings shadowed in a way that must have had some other luminary than the sun to light them, unless he had changed for the moment the usual course in which he travels through the heavens, for the gratification of the luminous draughtsman who craved his special aid. We regret that architects generally do not throw aside the pernicious system. There are some few who have done so, and are indebted to the practice for the rank they hold. We shall here merely add, before entering on the subject, that in our opinion, the greatest curse that in these days has fallen on architecture, is the employment of draughtsmen, who with their trumpery colouring and violent effects mislead the silly men and common-place critics that usually decide upon the merits of their works. In the days of Jones, Wren, and Vanbrugh, this was fortunately not the We ourselves possess more than one drawing of Wren, which fully prove that the medium of expression for the workman in our own art was then simple, and wanted not such silly aids as those whereof we have been speaking. If proof be required, let the authorities, who ought better to direct these matters, make a pilgrimage to Oxford, and there examine the drawings of Wren, whose equal we cannot point to in the present age. Let them examine the way in which Inigo Jones went to work from the MS. notes on his copy of Palladio, now at Worcester College, and we may hope to see better days. The present mode is that of making a pretty picture; and he who makes the prettiest, provided he have a reasonable number of friends in a committee, is the lucky candidate. But we are wandering from the subject, and must return to that which heads the section. case. 2382. The usual mode of teaching drawing now in use is, as we conceive, among the most absurd and extravagant methods of imparting instruction that can be well conceived. The learner is usually first put to copying drawings or prints, on which he is occupied for a considerable time. How much more would he learn, and how much more quickly, by drawing at once from the figure or its parts; thus at once, for that the thing is quite possible, we know from experience, acquiring the power of transferring to a plane surface the representation of that which is placed before his eye? And here we deem it proper to apprise the reader that the representation of form is all that the architect requires. The power of doing this is no slight acquirement. Under perspective, we shall see in the following section, that for all geometrical solids the representation is dependent on mechanical means, of which every one may easily possess himself; and these may, if it be desirable, be shadowed truly by the methods given in Section III.; but the undulating form of the figure, and the infinite variety of a landscape, by changing the situation of the spectator, is more the matter now to be considered. As to the materials to be used for the purpose, a black lead pencil and some Indian ink or sepia are all that the architect On them we shall not therefore stop to waste his and our own time. It is the practice of going further that has excited the observations with which we began. 2383. We are fully aware of the impossibility by writing merely, without the aid of a master at the student's back, to teach any one the art of drawing. Much, nevertheless, may be imparted, namely, the mechanical means, assisted by a general knowledge of perspective, to place the different parts of a figure or landscape not so violently out of their proper places in the representation as to offend the eye. Here let us mention that our impression is, and we do not believe that any artist will venture to contradict it, that he can want. who can draw the figure will be able to draw any other object or objects that are submitted to him for representation. Besides this, the freedom he will obtain in the use of his pencil by first employing it in this way, will impart a facility which is by no other means to be attained. This was one of the great powers possessed by the artists of Italy; this made them painters, sculptors, and architects, combining the three arts in one person, and this, lost, has separated the three arts, and the want of it reduced our Academy, with a few exceptions, to parties of whom, with all our best feelings towards them, it cannot be said they are those upon whom the mantle has fallen to do the like. Portrait painting, good enough of itself, This, however, is not the fault of the Academy, but of the selfish has banished real art. feeling of the nation. 2384. We have also, before entering on the few principles to be given, to premise that though for the painter and sculptor a knowledge of anatomy is absolutely requisite, we do not insist upon that for our purpose. It is only to be so far known as to remember that the carpentry of man is his skeleton, and the muscles and integuments the lath and plaster put on the framing. We mean, in fact, that a general knowledge of it for drawing is well to be possessed. 2385. The method proposed in the following pages is as old, at least in principle, as the time at which we ourselves began to learn the art; and we are therefore surprised that it should have been lately published as new in Paris, by M. Dupuis. (“ De l'Enseignement du Dessin sous le point de vue industriel," 1836.) The principles of the work, however, are perhaps better expressed and arranged, in some respects, than we might have presented them to the reader: and we shall not, therefore, apologise to our readers for the free use we intend to make of it, premising, however, that we do not in any way admit its novelty, and that, in respect to the whole figure and the application of the method to landscapes, what follows is not found in the work of M. Dupuis. 2386. Outline is the foundation of all drawing, the elementary alphabet of graphic art. Every representation of an object, or series of objects, however complicated, is, in reality, but a set of outlines modified by right and curved lines. The knowledge of these lines, and of their several properties, will greatly abridge the labour of the student, inasmuch as the power, if we may so express ourselves, of reading and writing them by calculating the relations of size and distance which exist between their parts, is, in fact, the faculty of drawing. The elements of perspective may be previously so far entered upon as to acquire facility in drawing in every position, without the aid of those rules which are given in Sect. II.; the cube, cylinder, sphere, pyramid, and other solid bodies, upon which, from the objects themselves actually before him, the student may begin to work. Having acquired freedom and power of accurate representation in this respect, and also a dexterity in the use of his pencil generally, he may commence his operations on the figure itself. 2387. Between the ancient mode of teaching the student (we will take the head, for instance, shown in fig. 809. as the first roughing of the leading lines of that which in fig. 812. has reached its completion) and the method practised by M. Dupuis, the only difference is this, that M. D., instead of letting the student form the rough outline at once from the finished bust, roughing out on paper the principal masses, provides a series of models roughly bossed out in their different stages, which he makes the student draw. The system is ingenious; but as the greatest artists have been made without the modification in question, we do not think it material; at all events, the principles are the same. M. Dupuis, for this purpose, has a series of sixteen models, the first of each four of the series are quite sufficient to show the old as well as his own practice. Thus, in fig. 809., the general mass of the oval of the head is given, in which it is seen that the profile is indicated by an obtuse angle, whose extreme point corresponds with the lower part of the nose, and the lines at one extremity terminate with the roots or commencement of the hair, and at the other with the lower jaw. The form of the rest of the head is the result of combining the most projecting points of it by curved lines, in short, of supposing a rough mass, out of which the sculptor might actually, in marble or other material, form the head. Fig. 809. Fig. 810. 2388. The next step is exhibited in fig. 810., with the four principal divisions: the occipital to the beginning of the hair, the forehead to the line of the eyes, the projection of the nose, and the inferior part of the face, with some indication of the mouth. 2389. In fig. 811. it will be seen that another step is gained. The eyes (here only one appears, but we speak with reference to the subject, being less in profile), the mouth, the chin, and the ear are more clearly marked out, with some sort of expression of the whole work, but still without details, though sufficiently indicating that little more is necessary to bring the rude sketch of fig. 809. to a resemblance. 2390. In fig. 812. this is obtained; but still, according to the degree to which an artist considers finishing necessary, to be further pursued and carried through to make a perfect drawing; all that is here intended being to show the principles upon which the matter is conducted, and upon which we shall presently have further observations to make. It will be observed that on the shadowing and finishing in this way, the drawings the student may make we set no value: when he can draw, if those matters be of importance to him, they will not be difficult of acquisition. We scarcely think it here necessary to repeat that, having accomplished the art of drawing with tolerable correctness the figure, the architect will have few difficulties to contend with in drawing the most complex and elaborate ornaments employed in architecture. The principles are precisely the same; but we wish here to impress upon him the necessity of recurring to nature herself for his ornaments: a practice which will always impart a freshness and novelty to them which even imitation of the antique will not impart. Fig. 811. Fig. 812. 2391. The port crayon, whether carrying chalk or a black lead pencil of moderate weight and size, say full seven inches long, is the best instrument to put into the hands of the beginner. The first object he must consider in roughing the subject, as in fig. 809., is the relation the height of the whole bears to its width; and this determined, he must proceed to get the general contour, without regard to any internal divisions, and thus proceed by subdivisions, bearing the relative proportions to each other of the model, comparing them with one another and with the whole. We will now show how the port crayon assists in this operation. Let the pupil be supposed seated before the model, at such a distance from it that at a single look, without changing the position of his head upwards, downwards, or sideways, his eye takes in the whole of it. The strictest attention to this point is necessary, for difficulties immediately present themselves if he is too near, as well as if he is too far from it. And here let it be observed that the visual rays (see fig. 813.) upon every object Fig. 813. may be compared to the legs of a pair of compasses, which open wider as we approach the object and close as we recede from it. This is a law of perspective well known, and which the student may easily prove by experiment, keeping the head of the compasses near his eye, and opening the legs to take in, in looking along them, any dimension of an object. He will soon find that as he approaches such object he must open the legs wider in order to comprise within them the given dimension. Hence every diameter or dimension, separately considered, is comprised in the divergence of the visual rays. It is on this account that, being at a proper distance, any moveable measure which with a free motion of his body he can interpose upon some one of the points of the distance between his eye and the model, may, though much less than the model itself, take in the whole field of view, reach the extremities of the dimension, and consequently become of great assistance in certain mathematical measures. For by applying such a measure to one division only of the model, we shall obtain, as it were, an integer for finding a great many others into which the model may be subdivided. 2392. Thus, taking fig. 809., which is profile, and supposing the width at the neck unity, if this is twice and a half contained in the general height of the bust. we have immediately the proportions of one to two and a half, which may be immediately set out on the paper or canvas. This is not all; the integer or unity obtained by the diameter of the neck serves also for measuring the horizontal diameter of the head, and also of the bust; whence new proportions may be obtained. So much for the first casting of the general form. Now, in the entire bust, as respects the head only, suppose we wish to obtain the proportions of the principal divisions, — for example, from the base of the bust to the base of the chin, - we may establish another integer to measure other parts; as, if from the point of view, the distance from the base of the bust to the base of the chin is the same as from the last to the summit of the head, the learner would have nothing more to do in that respect than to divide the whole height into two equal parts. On the same principle, passing from divisions to subdivisions, the distance between the base of the chin and the point whence the nose begins to project, may be found a measure for the height of the nose, and from thence to the top of the cranium. We are here merely showing the method of obtaining different integers for measuring the different parts mentioned; others will in practice occur continually, after a very little practice. We do not suppose our readers will believe that we propose to teach drawing by mathematical rules; we now only speak of obtaining points from which undulating and varying lines are to spring and return, and which none but a fine and sensitive eye will be able to express. But to return to the port crayon, which is the moveable measure or compasses whereto we have alluded, and requires only skilful handling to perform the offices of compasses, square, plumb rule, and level. By interposing it (see fig. 813.) on the divergence of the visual rays between the eye and the object, we may estimate the relative proportions; since in the field of view the learner may apply it to the whole or any of the parts, and make any one a measure for another. For this purpose he must hold it, as shown in the figure, steadily and at arm's length. Any portion of it that is cut by the visual rays between any two parts of the object, becomes the integer for the measurement of other parts whereof we have been speaking. This in the drawing will be increased according as the size is greater or less than the portion of the port crayon intercepting the visual rays. This process may be easily accomplished by making, upon one and the same line of the visual ray, the extreme point of the port crayon to touch one of the extremities of the proportion sought upon the model, so that they may exactly correspond. Then at the same time fixing the thumb or fore-finger where the visual ray from the other extremity is intercepted, we shall find any equal length by moving the port crayon with the thumb and fore-finger fixed to any other part we want, as to size, to compare with the first, or by using the same expedient to other parts, other integers may be found. The different integers, indeed, which may be thus obtained is infinite. The port crayon will also serve the purpose of a plumb bob by laying hold of it by the chalk, and holding it just only so tight between the fingers as to prevent its falling, so that its own gravity makes it assume a vertical direction. Doing so, if it then be held up to intercept the visual rays, we may discover the proportion in which a line swells whose directon approaches the vertical, as also the quantity one part projects before another in the model; and comparing this again with the integer, obtain new points for starting from. Again, by holding it before the eye in an horizontal direction, we shall obtain the different parts of the model that lie before the eye in the same horizontal line. By degrees we shall thus soon find the eye become familiarised with the model it contemplates; judgment in arranging the parts supervenes; the hand becomes bold and unhesitating, and the leading forms are quickly transferred to the paper or canvas to be subdivided to such extent as is required by the degree of finish intended to be bestowed upon the drawing. 2393. The process that we have considered more with relation to the bust is equally applicable to the whole figure. In fig. 814. we have more particularly shown by the dotted lines the horizontal and vertical use of the port crayon; but the previous adjustment of some measure of unity for proportioning the great divisions to each other is also applied to it as already stated. In the figure, EE is the line of the horizon, or that level with the eye; it will be seen passing through the knee of that leg upon which the principal weight of the body is thrown. 2394. Though our object in this section is to give only a notion of the way of transferring to paper or canvas such objects as present themselves, we think it proper to hint at a few general matters which the student will do well to consider, and these relate to the balance and motion of the human figure. Geometry and arithmetic were with the painters of antiquity of such importance that Pamphilus the master of Apelles declared, without them art could not be perfected. Vitruvius particularly tells us the same thing, and, as follows, gives the proportions of the human figure: — From the chin to the top of the forehead, or to the roots of the hair, is a tenth part of the height of the whole body; from the chin to the crown of the head is an eighth part of the whole height; and from the nape of the neck to the crown of the head, the same. From the upper part of the breast to the roots of the hair, a sixth; to the crown of the head, a fourth. A third part of the height of the face is equal to that from the chin to the under side of the nostrils, and thence to the middle of the eyebrows the same: from the last to the roots of the hair, where the forehead ends, the remaining third part. The length of the foot is a sixth part of the height of the body; the fore-arm, a fourth part; the width of the breast a fourth part. Similarly," continues our author, "have the other members their due proportions, by attention to which the ancient painters and sculptors obtained so much reputation. Just so, the parts of temples should correspond with each other and with the whole. The navel is naturally placed in the centre of the human body; and if a man lie with his face upwards, and his hands and feet extended, and from his navel as the centre, a circle be described, it will touch his fingers and toes. It is not alone by a circle that the human body is thus circumscribed, as may be seen (fig. 815.) by placing it within a square. For, measuring from the feet to the crown of the head, and then across the arms fully extended, we find the latter measure equal to the former; so that the lines at right angles to each other, enclosing the figure, will form a square." Fig. 815. 2395. "How well," says Flaxman (Lectures on Sculpture), "the ancients understood the balance of the figure, is proved by the two books of Archimedes on that subject; besides, it is impossible to see the numerous figures, springing, jumping, dancing, and falling, in the Herculaneum paintings, on the painted vases, and the antique basso-rilievos, without being assured that the painters and sculptors must have employed geometrical figures to determine the degrees of curvature in the body, and angular or rectilinear extent of the limbs, and to fix the centre of gravity." Leonardo da Vinci has illustrated the subject in his Trattato di Pittura, a perusal of which cannot fail of being highly beneficial to the student. 2396. As in all other bodies, the centre of gravity of the human figure is that point from which, if suspended, the figure would remain at rest when turned round upon it. Flaxman, by some strange mistake, has described the centre of gravity as "an imaginary straight line, which falls from the gullet between the ankles to the ground, when it (the figure) is perfectly upright, equally poised on both feet, with the hands hanging down on each side.' (Fig. 816.). The fact is, that the centre of gravity is found to be in a line so drawn, or rather removed backwards from it, in a vertical plane returning from that line. Fig. 816. Fig. 817. 2397. Motion implies change of position; for instance, in fig. 817., the weight of the figure is thrown on one leg, hence a line passing through the centre of gravity falls from the gullet on one leg, on which side also the shoulder becomes lowered, and that on the opposite side raised; the hip and knee sinking below those on the side supporting the weight. In fig. 818. the dotted lines terminated by the letters ABCD represent lines of motion, as also the extent of such motion. The same are also shown in fig. 819., wherein A shows the inclination of the head to the breast; B the extreme bend of the back over the legs, without changing their position; C that of the back bent backwards, the legs |