the great constructive genius of the movement, Protestantism became an all-embracing life-system, which dominated the modern mind for three hundred years, and which is associated with the industrial, social, and political development of Europe. An understanding of modern development in all its branches, material, moral, philosophical, scientific and literary, depends upon clear insight into the great vitalising forces which Protestantism set in motion at the time of the Reformation.

In studying the Renaissance no better guide can be had than J. A. Symonds, who has written a history of the movement in Italy in seven volumes. The movement was remarkable for the patronage which it received from the Italian Princes and the Popes of the period. Giovanni di Medici, who as Pope under the name of Leo X., presided over the Humanist movement, and was a generous patron of science and art. The lesser Italian Princes had their Court poets, philosophers, and artists. The name

of Erasmus must ever be connected with the Renaissance. Numerous biographies of Erasmus have been written, and in Froude's 'Short Studies on Great Subjects' a good account is given of the work done by Erasmus and Luther. Froude also devotes

much attention in his essays to the corrupt state of the Roman Catholic Church at the time of the Reformation. In dealing with the subject his 'History of England' is of great value. Numerous lives of Luther have been written, and no reader who is interested in these matters need be at a loss to get an insight into the world-wide movement. It should not be forgotten how much the Reformation owed to other movements of a secular nature associated with the sixteenth century. In his 'History of Civilisation Guizot treats very suggestively of the social and political and national forces which were at work breaking down the Imperialism of the Romish Church. The economic forces which were driving Europe out of the Feudal into the Industrial epoch demanded for their successful issue just the virtues which Protestantism fostered-virtues which were incom

patible with the monastic and ascetic ideals of Romanism. In Buckle's 'History of Civilisation' many fruitful thoughts are to be found, and in the same category must be ranked Lecky's 'History of Rationalism.' No student of the movement should neglect Motley's great work on the war between Spain and Holland-a war which was in reality a contest for the leadership of Europe between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. Of course the part which Knox played in Scotland is known to every schoolboy.

CHAPTER XX.

THE REFORMATION AS AN EPOCH.

IN coming to the study of history, moderns are apt to be the slaves of phrases. A word, for instance, like "despotism" conjures up to people living under a democratic régime the ideas of numberless evils, religious, social, and political. It must not be forgotten that at certain stages of civilisation despotism may have a beneficial influence. Thus after the break-up of the Roman Empire two despotisms mainly beneficial sprang up—the Church and Feudalism. During the reign of anarchy it was surely a matter of necessity that some power should arise which, by imposing unanimity of belief, would at least bring the vast region of religion under the reign of order. Likewise in a time of social and political anarchy it was surely a necessity that mili

tarism should organise itself in the form of Feudalism, so as to bring the vast region of social life under the reign of order, thereby allowing the genius of commerce and industry to take root and develop.

The evil influence of the Roman Catholic Church and Feudalism lay in the fact that when they got society into their grip they erected barriers to progress. Out of this, as we saw, grew the Renaissance and the Reformation. In the previous chapter these were dealt with, but the reader should not forget that a similar movement for freedom proceeded in the industrial sphere in the contest waged against Feudalism. Between the religious and the politico-economic revolution there is a close connection. The Reformation took its rise from the widely-spread feeling that man as man had certain rights in the sphere of religion, with which no power on earth could interfere. Man's relation to his Maker, it was said, was an individual affair. Man claimed the right of approach to God without the mediatorship of an ecclesiastical organisation. In other words, man demanded freedom of worship