the gold ores of Virginia. In the town of Europe until after the invention of the steam Jackson, N. H., is a vein of arsenical iron, engine. The earliest use of mineral coal was containing thin streaks of oxide of tin. There probably of the anthracite of the Lehigh rehave been discovered, also, some of the tin gion, though it may be that the James River ores though not as yet in large quantity in bituminous coal mines, 12 miles above RichMaine, in Missouri, in Texas, and in Califor- mond, were worked at an earlier period than nia. The last named, it is thought, may yet the Pennsylvania anthracites. The region furnish considerable supplies. Tin is impor- containing the latter belonged to the tribes ted chiefly from the mines of Cornwall, Eng- of the Six Nations, until their title was exland, and from Banca, and other islands of tinguished and the proprietary government the Malay archipelago. The United States obtained possession, in 1749, of a territory is one of the largest consumers of tin, sheet of 3750 square miles, including the southern tin having been applied, through the inge- and middle of the three anthracite coal-fields, nuity of the workers of this article in Con- In 1768 possession was acquired of the north necticut, to the manufacture of a variety of ern coal-field, and at the same time of the useful utensils. What is called sheet tin is great bituminous region west of the Allereally sheet iron coated with a very thin ghany mountains. The existence of coal in layer of tin. The sheets are prepared in the anthracite region could not have escaped England by dipping the brightened iron the notice of the whites who had explored sheets into a bath of melted tin. The pro- the country, for its great beds were exposed cess has been applied to coating articles in many of the natural sections of the river made of iron, which are thus protected banks and precipitous hills, and down the from rusting; and zinc is also used for sim- mountain streams pieces of coal, washed out ilar purposes. Such are stirrups, bridle-bits, from the beds, were abundantly scattered. etc. Cast-iron pots and saucepans are tin- The oldest maps now known, dating as far ned on the inside by melted tin being poured back as 1770, and compiled from still older in and made to flow over the surface, which ones, designate in this region localities of has been made chemically clean to receive "coal;" but these were probably not rethe metal. The surface is then rubbed with garded as giving any additional value to the cloth or tow. Tin is imported in blocks or territory. The first recorded notice of its ingots, and the metal is applied to the prep- use was in the northern basin by some blackaration of various alloys, as bronze or bell- smiths in 1770, only two years after the metal, composed of copper and tin in vari- whites came in possession; and in 1775 a able proportions, commonly of 78 parts of boat load of it was sent down from Wilkescopper, and 22 of tin; gun-metal, copper 90, | barre to the Continental armory at Carand tin 10; pewter, of various proportions lisle. This was two years after the laying of tin and lead, or when designed for pewter out of the borough of Wilkesbarre by the plates, of tin 100, antimony 8, bismuth 2, Susquehanna Land Company of Connectiand copper 2; and soft solder, consisting of tin and lead, usually of two parts of the former to one of the latter. Bismuth is sometimes added to increase the fusibility of the alloy. CHAPTER IX. To the early settlers of the American colonies the beds of mineral coal they met with were of no interest. In the abundance of the forests around them, and with no manufacturing operations that involved large consumption of fuel, they attached no value to the black stony coal, the real importance of which was not in fact appreciated even in cut. From this time the coal continued to be used for mechanical operations by smiths, distillers, etc.; and according to numerous certificates from these, published in 1815, in a pamphlet by Mr. Zachariah Cist of Wilkesbarre, they had found it very much better for their purposes, and more economical to use than Virginia bituminous coal, though at the enormous price of 90 cents a bushel. Gunsmiths found it very convenient for their small fires, and one of them, dating his certificate December 9, 1814, stated that he had used it for 20 years, consuming about a peck a day to a fire, which was sufficient for manufacturing 8 musketbarrels, each barrel thus requiring a quart of coal. Oliver Evans, the inventor of the steam engine, certifies in the same pamphlet to his having used it for raising steam, for VARIETIES OF COal. This which it possessed properties superior to those the Susquehanna to Columbia, Lancaster of any other fuel. Judge Fell of Wilkes- county, which, he states, caused much surbarre applied it to warming houses in 1808, prise to the inhabitants, that "an article with and contrived suitable grates for this use of which they were wholly unacquainted should it; but the cheapness of wood and the be thus brought to their own doors." greater convenience of a fuel which every was the commencement of a trade which has one understood how to use, long prevented since been prosecuted to some extent by its general adoption. In the first volume running rafts of timber loaded with coal, and of the "Memoirs of the Historical Society sometimes with pig iron also, from the headof Pennsylvania," T. C. James, M.D., gives waters to the lower portion of the Susquea brief account of the discovery of anthra- hanna. The bituminous coal mines on the cite coal on the Lehigh," in which he de- James River, 12 miles above Richmond, in scribes a visit he made to the Mauch Chunk Virginia, were also worked during the last mountain in 1804, where he saw the immense century, but at how early a period we are body of anthracite, into which several small ignorant. In an account of them in the first pits had then been sunk, and which was volume of the "American Journal of Sciafterward worked, as it is still, as an open ence," published in 1818, they are spoken quarry. He states that he commenced to of as already having been worked 30 years. burn the coal that year, and had continued to use it to the time of making this communication in 1826. The discovery of this famous mass of coal was made in 1791, and in 1793 the “Lehigh Coal Mine Company" was formed to work it. But as there were no facilities for transporting the coal down the valley of the Lehigh, nothing was done until 1814, when, at great labor and expense, 20 tons were got down the river and were delivered in Philadelphia. Two years before this a few wagon loads had been received there from the Schuylkill mines; but the regular trade can hardly be said to have commenced until 1820, when the receipts in Philadelphia amounted to 365 tons. Such was the commencement of the great anthracite trade of Pennsylvania, which in the course of 45 years has been steadily increasing, till it now reaches the enormous amount of 15,368,437 tons for the year 1867, and sustains numerous branches of metallurgical and mechanical industry, the possible dependence of which upon this fuel and source of power was hardly dreamed of when its mines were first opened. The existence of bituminous coal west of the Alleghanies was probably known as early as was that of anthracite in the eastern part of Pennsylvania; and on the western rivers it could not fail to have been noticed by the early missionaries, voyageurs, and hunters. In the old maps of 1770 and 1777 the occurrence of coal is noted at several points on the Ohio. A tract of coal land was taken up in 1785 near the present town of Clearfield, on the head-waters of the west branch of the Susquehanna, by Mr. S. Boyd, and in 1804 he sent an ark load of the coal down The mineral coals are found of various sorts, which are distinguished by peculiarities of appearance, composition, and properties. Derived from vegetable matters, they exhibit in their varieties the successive changes which these have undergone from the condition of peaty beds or deposits of ligneous materials-first into the variety known as brown coal or lignite, in which the bituminous property appears, while the fibre and structure of the original woody masses is fully retained; next in beds of bituminous coal comprised between strata of shales, fireclay, and sandstones; and thence through several gradations of diminishing proportions of bitumen to the hard stony anthracite, the composition of which is nearly pure carbon; and last of all in this series of steps attending the conversion of wood into rock, the vegetable carbon is locked up in the mineral graphite or plumbago. These steps are clearly traceable in nature, and in all of them the strata which include the carbonaceous beds have undergone corresponding changes. The clayey substratum that supports the peat appears under the beds of mineral coal in the stony material called fire-clay (used when ground to make fire-brick); the muddy sediments such as are found over some of the great modern peat deposits, appear in the form of black shales or slates, which when pulverized return to their muddy consistency; the beds of sand, such as are met with in some of the peat districts of Europe interstratified with different peat beds, are seen in the coal-measures in beds. of sandstones; and the limestones which also occur in the same group of strata, represent ancient beds of calcareous marls. The slow progression of these changes is indicated by the different ages of the geological formations in which the several varieties occur. Beds of peat are of recent formation, though some of them are still so old, that they are found at different depths, one below another, separated by intervening layers of sand, clay, and earth. Brown coal, or lignite, is commonly included among the strata of the tertiary period; the bituminous coals are in the secondary formations; and the anthracites, though contained in the same geological group with the great bituminous coal formation, are in localities where the strata have all been subjected to the action of powerful agents which have more or less metamorphosed them and expelled the volatile bitumen from the coal. The graphite or plumbago is in still older groups, or in those which have been still more metamorphosed by heat. oxygen, and the little nitrogen in their composition, may be distributed in the forms of carburetted hydrogen, ammonia, the bitaminous oils, etc., cannot be ascertained by analysis, as the means employed to separate most of these compounds cause their elements to form other combinations among themselves: the determination of the ultimate proportions of all the elements would serve no practical purpose. So, if it be required to prove the fitness of any coal for affording illuminating gas, or the coal oils, it must be submitted to experiments having such objects only in view; and even their capacity for generating heat is better determined by comparative experiments in evaporating water, than by any other mode. The bituminous coals are characterized by their large proportion of volatile matter, which, when they are heated, is expelled in various inflammable compounds, that take fire and burn, accompanied by a dense, black smoke and a peculiar odor known as bituminous. All these varieties of fossil fuel are found If the operation is conducted without access in the United States. Peat beds of small of air, as in a closed platinum crucible, the extent are common in the northern portion fixed carbon remains behind in the form of of the country, and in some parts of New coke; and by removing the cover to admit England are much used for fuel, and the air, this may next be consumed, and the remuck, or decomposed peat, as a fertilizer to siduum of ash be obtained. By several the soil. In the great swamps of southern weighings the proportions are indicated. Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, vegeta- Coals containing 18 per cent. or more of ble deposits of similar nature are found upon volatile matter are classed among the bia scale more commensurate with the extent tuminous varieties; but as the proportion of of the ancient coal-beds. Lignite is not this may amount to 70 per cent. or more, found in workable beds, as in some parts of there is necessarily a considerable difference Germany and England, but in scattered de- in the characters of these coals, though their posits of small extent among the tertiary most marked peculiarities are not always clays, chiefly near the coast of New Jersey, owing to the different amounts of volatile Delaware, and Maryland, and in the west-matter they contain. Thus, some sorts, called ern territories. The distribution of the true the "fat bituminous," and "caking coals," coal formations will be pointed out after des- that melt and run together in burning, and ignating more particularly the characters of are especially suitable for making coke, conthe different coals. All of these consist of tain about the same proportion of volatile the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and matter with the "dry coals," as some of the nitrogen; the carbon being in part free, cannel and other varieties, which burn withand in part combined with the other ele-out melting, and do not make good coke. ments to form the volatile compounds that Other varieties are especially distinguished exist to some extent in all coals. Earthy for their large proportion of volatile ingrematters which form the ash of coals are al- dients; such are the best cannels, and those ways intermixed in some proportion with light coals which have sometimes been misthe combustible ingredients, and water, also, taken for asphaltum, as the Albert coal of is present. When coals are analyzed for the province of New Brunswick. These vathe purpose of indicating their heating qual-rieties are eminently qualified for producing ity by their composition, it is enough to de- gas or the coal oils; but have little fixed cartermine the proportions of fixed carbon, of bon, and consequently can produce little volatile matter, and of ash which they con- coke. Coals that contain from 11 to 18 per tain. How the combined carbon, hydrogen, cent. volatile matter, are known as semi-bi tuminous, and partake both of the qualities others it is gray, as in the Lehigh coals. of the true bituminous coals, in igniting and This distinction is used to designate some burning freely, and of the anthracite in the of the varieties of anthracite; but the qualcondensed and long-continued heat they ity of these coals is more dependent on the produce. The Maryland coals, and the Ly- quantity of the ash, than on its color. From kens valley coal of Pennsylvania, are of numerous analyses of the Schuylkill red ash this character. The true anthracites con- coals an average of 7.29 per cent. of ash tain from 2 to 6 per cent. of gaseous mat- was obtained, and of the white ash anthracite, ters, which by heat are evolved in carbu- 4.62 per cent. Coals producing red ash are retted hydrogen and water, even when the more likely to clinker in burning than those coal has been first freed from the water me- containing an equal amount of white ash. chanically held. Their greatest proportion | In some varieties of coal the proportion of of solid carbon is about 95 per cent. There earthy matter is so great that the substance remains a class which has been designated approaches the character of the bituminous as semi-anthracite, containing from 6 to 11 shales, and may be called indifferently eiper cent. of combustible volatile matter. ther shale or coal. Though such materials These coals burn with a yellowish flame, un- make but poor fuel, some of them have til the gas derived from the combination of proved very valuable from the large amount its elements is consumed. of gas and of oily matters they afford. The most remarkable of this class is that known as the Boghead cannel. This is largely The earthy ingredients in coals, forming their ash, are derived from the original wood and from foreign substances introduced mined near Glasgow, in Scotland, and is imamong the collections of ligneous matters ported into New York to be used in the that make up the coal-beds. The ash manufacture of coal oil. It is a dull black, is unimportant, excepting as the material stony-looking substance, having little resemwhich produces it takes the place of so much blance to the ordinary kinds of coal. Its combustible matter. In some coals, espec- composition is given for comparison with ially those of the Schuylkill region, it is red, that of other coals, in the following tafrom the presence of oxide of iron, and in ble : H. D. Rogers. 1.50 94.10 1.40 4.50 Peach Mountain, Penn.; mean of 40 analyses....W. R. Johnson................ 1.46 1.56 91.64 6.89 1.47 Black Heath, James River, Virginia. Price's Mountain, Montgomery Co., Virginia. Atkinson's and Templeman's, Maryland; aver- George's Creek, Maryland.. Pittsburg, Pennsylvania.. Cannelton, Indiana.. Albert Coal, New Brunswick. ..........Dr. C. T. Jackson....... 1.85 .....B. Silliman, jr........................ W. R. Johnson.... 1.272 1.287 1.871 14.36 62.03 28.62 A complete description of the coals, such steam quickly; 2, for raising it abundantly as may be found in the Report of Prof. for the quantity used; 3, freedom from Walter R. Johnson (Senate Document, 28th dense smoke in their combustion; 4, freedom Congress, No. 386), and presented, in a from tendency to crumble in handling; 5, condensed form, in Johnson's Edition of capacity, by reason of their density, and the "Knapp's Chemical Technology," presents shapes assumed by their fragments, of close many other features affecting the qualities stowage; and 6, freedom from sulphur. The of the coals, and their adaptation to special last is an important consideration, affecting Such are-1, their capacity for raising the value of coals proposed for use in the uses. iron manufacture, sulphur, which is often yards and on board ships have been thus present in coal in the form of sulphuret of inflamed, involving the most disastrous coniron, having a very injurious effect upon the sequences. In stowage capacity coals dif iron with which it is brought in contact fer greatly, and this should be attended to when heated. It is again to be cautiously in selecting them for use in long voyages. guarded against in selecting bituminous Tendency to crumble involves waste. Dense coals to be employed in steam navigation; smoke in consuming is objectionable in coals for by the heat generated by spontaneous required for vessels-of-war in actual service, decomposition of the iron pyrites, the eas- as it must expose their position when it may ily ignited bituminous coals may be readily be important to conceal it. The following set on fire. This phenomenon is of frequent table was prepared by Prof. Johnson to preoccurrence in the waste heaps about coal sent some of the general results in these mines, and large bodies of coal stored in particulars of his experiments : GENERAL SCALE, OF RELATIVE VALUES FORMED FROM THE Averages oF EACH CLASS OF COAL. Column 1 gives the relative evaporative powers of equal weights of the coals; 2, the same of equal bulks; 3, their relative freedom from tendency to clinker; 4, rapidity of action in evaporating water; 5, facility of ignition, or readiness with which steam is gotten up. The general results of experience in use, as well as of special trials systematically conducted upon a large scale, agree in these particulars-that while the bituminous coals are valuable for the greater variety of uses to which they are applicable, and especially for all purposes requiring flame and a diffusive heat, as under large boilers; and while they are quickly brought into a state of combustion, rendering the heat they produce more readily available; the anthracites afford a more condensed and lasting heat, and are to be preferred in many metallurgical operations, especially where great intensity of temperature is required. And for many purposes, the free-burning, semi-bituminous coals, which combine the useful properties of both varieties, are found most economical in use.. GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBU TION. The United States is supplied with coal from a number of coal-fields belonging to what are called the true coal-measures, or the carboniferous group, a series of strata sometimes amounting, in aggregate thick ness, to 2000 and even 3000 feet, and whether found in this country or in Europe, readily recognized by the resemblance in the various members of its formation, its fossil organic remains, its mineral accompa niments, and by its position relative to the other groups of rock which overlie and underlie it. The principal one of these fields or basins is that known as the Appalachian, which, commencing in the north-eastern part of Pennsylvania, stretches over nearly all the state west of the main Alleghany ridge, and takes in the eastern portion of Ohio, parts of Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, the north-west corner of Georgia, and extends into Alabama as far as Tuscaloosa. Its total area, including a number of neighboring basins, as those of the anthracite region to the east of the Alleghany ridge, which were originally a part of the same great field, is estimated at about 70,000 square miles. A second great basin is that which includes the larger part of Illinois, and the western portion of Indiana and of Kentucky. Its area is estimated at about 50,000 square miles; the coal is bituminous, and largely charged with oil. ง The third coal field, now known as the Rocky Mountain Coal Field, is the largest in the world, embracing an area in North America of 1,250,000 square miles of which 513,000 square miles is within the United States. It covers large areas in Texas, the Indian Territory, New Mexico, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa. Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado. The coal is semi-bituminous and of good quality. The coal of the Pacific States is mainly lignite, containing about 50 per cent. of carbon, but. on Vancouver's |