Poets, rarely after Augustan age, sometimes vocalised a (usually) consonantal v. Thus suãdeo, sŭesco (Lucr.); suerunt (Cic.); suētus (Lucr., Hor.); consecue (Lucr.), adsecue, obsecuum (Plaut.); ăcăãi, ǎcùæ (for aqvæ) Lucr. So also solão, dissolão, &c. (Lucr., Cat., and elegiac poets); võlão (elegiac); sílŭæ (Hor.).

decuria, centuria, cũria are by some supposed to be for decvir-ia, cent-vir-ia, co-vir-ia.

3. fell out in some few words; e. g. savium for svavium; tibi, te for tvibi, tve; ungo, tingo, urgeo for ungvo, tingvo, urgveo. (In slave names, e. g. Publipor, Marcipor, por is for puer, probably the e being extruded).

So also qum, qur is sometimes written for quom, quor, or cum, cur.

4. Apparently an initial ▾ has fallen off in some words beginning with r and 1; e.g. rosa, pódov, Æol. ẞpódov; rigare, ßpéxew; radix, píla, Lesb. Bpioda; lăcer, pákos, Æol. ẞpákos; lupus, Germ. wolf; laqueus, ẞpóxos, rota for vrota (from vortere). (Compare our pronunciation of wreck, wreak, wrong, wrought, &c.)

5. v after d hardened to b, and then d fell off; e.g. duellum, bellum, &c. (see § 76).

In a few words medial v changed to b; e.g. deferbui, bubile; see § 76. 2, and compare the examples in § 90. 3.

6. On the confusion in late Latin of v and b see § 72.

F.

CHARACTER: before 500 U. c. sometimes I', which is also found in (later) cursive writing; e.g. the wall inscriptions at Pompeii. (See also E, § 226.) The sign F is the Æolic digamma, which the Latins adopted instead of 8, which form was used by the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Oscans.

95

SOUND: a sharp labio-dental fricative formed between the upper 96 teeth and under lip: English F. The dental element appears to have been predominant.

POSITION: never final except in the old rarely used form of ab, 97 viz. af1. Can stand in the commencement of a syllable before 1 or r; e.g. fluo, frango; but not after a consonant.

REPRESENTATION: 1. in Greek by ; e.g. Fabius, Háßlos; 98

1 This word, apparently an Italic form of the preposition ab, is found only before consonants, chiefly in Republican inscriptions; e.g. af Capua, af vobeis, af solo. Corssen holds af, ab and au (see § 78.3) to be all three of distinct origin (Ausspr. 1. 152-157, ed. 2).

Fortuna, Poprovva; Furius, Doúpios; Fidena, Didńvn; præfectorum, πраιþéктшv (Polyb.) &c. Quintilian (1. 4, 14) says the Greeks used to pronounce the Latin f with an aspiration, and instances Cicero's ridiculing a witness for not being able to pronounce the first letter of

Fundanius.

2. of Greek p, not until 4th century after Christ. So in the MS. of Gaius, elefantis, chirografis, &c.

CORRESPONDENCE: 1. to an original Indo-European bh and dh. 99 2. to Greek initial (which was followed by an aspirate, not English ph orf); e.g. fa-ri, fa-ma, φάναι, φήμη; fur, φώρ fero, pépo; fluo, pλuw (bubble); frater, ppárnp (clansman); fu-1, φύω; folium, φύλλον; farcio, φράσσω; fuga, φυγή; frigo, φρύγω; fagus (beech), pnyós (oak); fallo, σpáλλw; fungus, opóyyos; funda, σφενδόνη.

3. to Greek ẞ (rare); e.g. frěmo, ßpéμw; fascino, Baokaívw; föd-io, Ból-pos.

K

4. to Greek x (which was κ followed by an aspirate ); e.g. frio, χρίειν; fel, χολή; fa-mes, fä-tisco, χῆτος, χατίζω; frinum, χαλινός; finis, σχοῖνος.

5. to Greek digamma, later an aspirate; e.g. frango, Fρnyvvμi, ῥήγνυμι, frigeo, frigus, ῥιγέω, ρίγος.

6. to Greek initial (which was followed by an aspirate, not English th); e.g. fē-mina, Oñ-λus; -fen-do, Oeivw; fera, Onp, Aol. φήρ; foris, θύρα; fu-mus, sub-f-o, θυμός, θύω, θύελλα; fugo, fig-ura, θιγγάνω, θίγμα. Also to medial θ in rufus, ἐρυθρός.

SUBSTITUTION: 1. for d in preposition ad; e.g. before af- 100 fero, af-fătim, &c.

2. In ef-fèro, ef-fatus for older ecfero, ecfatus, the first f may perhaps be only a mark of a long syllable for ēfero, efatus.

INFLUENCE: 1. requires a preceding nasal to be n; e.g. in- 101 fero, con-fero, &c.

2. nf lengthens a preceding vowel; See under N (§ 167. 2).

WEAKNESS: Parts of the stem fu- are supposed to have been 102 modified and used as a verbal suffix, viz. ama-vi to stand for amafui; ama-bam for ama-fuam, ama-bo for ama-fuio. But if these verbal inflexions really came from that verb-stem, it was probably from an earlier form in which the initial was bh, not f.

CHAPTER VII.

GUTTURALS AND PALATALS.

K, C.

CHARACTER: as above, except that c was in early inscriptions 103 sometimes angular <.

k went out of use at an early period, probably before the decemviral laws, almost entirely, except in a few old abbreviations; e. g. in republican inscriptions, K. for Kæso; k. k. for kalumniæ causa; XVIR. SL. IVDIK. for Decemvir stlitibus (litibus) judicandis; K. or KAL. for Calendæ; INTERKAL. for intercalares; MERK. for Mercatus; and in later times K for caput, cardo, castra, carus, and KAR. for Carthago. In early inscriptions the words Kastorus (Castoris), Korano (Coranorum ?); Kæl. for Cælius; Dekem. for Decembres also occur. There was a tendency with some grammarians in Quintilian's time (1. 7, 10) to use k always before a.

SOUND: K always as the sharp guttural mute: i. e. English k.

C was used indiscriminately for both the sharp and flat guttural mute, till the beginning of the sixth century U. C., when a modified form (G) was introduced for the flat sound. A few instances, probably accidental, are found in later inscriptions. For Gaius and Gnæus the abbreviations always followed the old form, viz. C. Cn. C had not the sound of s (as in English). Nor does ci before a vowel appear to have been pronounced as sh, except provincially, before the 6th or 7th century after Christ (see § 110. 4).

104

POSITION: never final, except in a few words from which a 105 short has fallen off: dic, duc, fac, ac, sic, hic, illic, &c. for dice, duce, &c. Also usually lac for lacte (nom. sing.).

It can stand in the commencement of a syllable (1) before 1, r; e. g. clamo, crimen, &c.: (2) after s; e.g. scindo, scribo, &c.

REPRESENTATION: (i) in Greek by κ always; e. g. Campani, 106 Καμπανοί ; Lucius Cæcilius, Λεύκιος Καικίλιος; centurio, κεντυρίων ; Curius, Kópios; Cornelius, Kopvýλios (all in Polybius): pontifices, ποντίφικες ; Numfcius, Νομίκιος ; Cicero, Κικέρων ; Compitalia, Κομ πιτάλια; &c.

(ii) of Greek 1. k; e.g. λvykós, lyncis; Kíλığ, Cilix; Kúκλωψ, Cyclops; Περδίκκας, Perdiccas; Κίμων, Cimon; Κάδμος, Cadmus; &c.

2. also in early times x; e. g. Bacas, (i. e. Baccas) for Bákyas in the (so-called) S. C. de Bacanalibus, A.U.C. 568; and in later inscriptions Cilo for Xiλov; Antiocus for 'Avrioxos; &c. But the h was usually written in Cicero's time (Or. 48. § 160).

CORRESPONDENCE: 1. to an original Indo-European k.

2. to Greek κ; e. g. arx, arceo, ἄρκιος, ἀρκέω; decem, δέκα ; dico, maledic-us, deíkvvμi, díkŋ; decet, dokeî; centum, ēkaтov (i. e. ev-kat-ov one hund-red); socer, ékvpós; cădus, kádos; călare, calendæ, nomenclātor, καλεῖν, κλήτωρ; crebrum, κάρα; caput, κεφαλή; cluo, cli-ens, inclŭtus, kλúw, kλUTÓS; cănis (for cvanis), kúwv; spěcio, σκοπεῖν; cüculus, κόκκυξ, cuckoo; scipio, σκῆπτρον, &c.

107

3. to Greek (cf. § 118); e. g. voc-are, võx, ëπ-os eiñov, ö↓ (stem Feπ-); Ŏc-ülus, oπ-wл-α, ; sucus, săpio, oπós; jecur, πар. SUBSTITUTION: 1. for g before a sharp; e. g. actus from ag-0; 108 punctus from pungo; rexi= rec-si from reg-o; &c.

2. for h before t; e.g. trac-tus from trah-o; vec-tus from věh-o.

3. frequently written for final consonant of ob, sub, ad, id, in composition before c or q; e. g. oc-curro, suc-curro, ac-curro, iccirco, quicquid, acquiro. So also ecce, ecquis for en-ce, enquis.

4. cu for quo; e. g. cum, cuius, cui, cur, &c. for quom, quoius, quoi, quor, &c.; cotidie for quotidie; quicumque for quiquomque; alicubi for aliquobi; ècus, cocus, hircus, æcus, anticus, oblicus, for equos, coquos, hirquos, æquos, antiquos, obliquos (all in nom. sing.); secuntur, locuntur for sequontur, loquontur. Both forms were in use from the later part of the republic, till after the middle of the first century after Christ, when quo- began to give place to quu, the forms with c however remaining also, and being often found in our earliest MSS. Quum appears to be not earlier than the fourth century after Christ; and to have been sounded

as cum.

INFLUENCE: I. changes a preceding flat consonant in prepo- 109 sitions and pronouns to c; e. g. ac-curo, ic-circo, &c. § 108).

2. occasions omission of preceding dental; e. g. ac for atc, atque; hoc for hodce.

3. changes preceding m to n (sounded here as the guttural nasal § 162); e. g. hunc, nunc, tunc, for hum-ce, num-ce, tum-ce; anceps for am-ceps; prin-ceps for primi-ceps; sinciput for semicaput; &c.

WEAKNESS: 1. c is omitted before m, n, t, the preceding vowel being lengthened to compensate; e. g. lú-na, lu-men, compared with luc-eo; de-ni (for děcíni) from děc-em; quini (for quincini) from quinque; lāna, lānugo compared with λáx-vη; arānea with apáxin; limus, slant, with licinus, crumpled, obliq-uus, λéxpis, λik-pipis; pi-nus for pic-nus (pic-, nom. pix), va-nus compared with vac-uus; au-tumnus from aug-eo; dūmēta for dumec-ta; sētius for sectius; nitor for gnic-tor, comp. nixus, geniculum.

2. c is often omitted when preceded by 1, r, n, and followed by a consonant; e. g. ar-tus for arc-tus; far-tus for farc-tus ; ful-tus for fulc-tus; ul-tus for ulc-tus; quin-tus (usually) for quinc-tus; nac-tus as well as nanc-tus; nasturtium for nās-torctium; fulmentum from fulc-ire; mul-si, mulsum from mulc-ēre, &c.

3. Initial c is sometimes omitted before 1, r, n; e. g. lãmentum compared with clāmare; læna with χλαῖνα ; läpa with κόλαφος (a Syracusan word?); raudus, rūdus with crūdus ; nīdor with κvîσa.

4. ci (before a vowel) is often confused with ti in the spelling of derivative suffixes, partly from doubts as to the etymology of a word, partly from the palatilisation of both ci and ti (=sh) in times when the MSS. were written. ci for ti does not appear, till an African inscription in 3rd century after Christ; and not numerously before Gallic inscriptions and documents of the 7th century after Christ. ti for ci is not certainly found before end of 4th century after Christ. In certain proper names (e. g. Marcius, Martius) both forms appear to have existed as separate names with different origin, and then to have been confused.

The following appears according to inscriptions to be the correct spelling of certain disputed words: dicio, condicio, solacium, patricius, tribunicius;

contio, nuntius (and derivatives), fētialis, indūtiæ, ōtium, negōtium, sētius.

Both suspicio and suspitio, convicium and convitium are found in good MSS.; neither in inscriptions.

IZO

X.

This character is a mere abbreviation for cs. It is first found in 111 a single sexto, referred to times before the second Punic war, and afterwards not until S. C. de Bacc. 186 B. C. (The inscriptions before this date are but few.)

In inscriptions at all times (perhaps from regarding x as a mere guttural like Greek x) xs is often found instead of x; e.g. exstrad,