TREBLE

mohair, skins, wax, gum, resin, gall-nuts, to- | bacco, oil, opium, fruit, shawls, and carpets, brought by camel caravans; also timber and boxwood. Trebizond gave a memorable reception to the Ten Thousand. Trajan made it the capital of Pontus-Cappadocia. In 1204 Alexius Comnenus founded the empire of Trebizond, which lasted till 1461. Pop. abt. 35,000.

Treb'le, in music, the highest vocal or instrumental part in a concerted piece, such as is sung by women or boys, or played by instruments of acute tone, as the violin, flute, oboe, clarinet, etc., or on the higher keys of the piano, organ, etc., so called because it was originally a third part added to the ancient canto fermo and the counterpoint.

Tree, a woody plant with a single trunk rising to more than the height of a man. There are all gradations between shrubs and trees. Most common trees increase in thickness by the addition each year of a cylinder of wood around the wood of the preceding years. They are said to be exogenous in growth. The seedling stem, almost as soon as it is formed, is crossed by woody threads, so arranged as to surround a central portion that remains destitute of woody matter; and these increase in size and number until they form a layer of wood (in cross-section a ring) between the soft central core, the pith, and an outer portion, the bark. When this layer of wood is formed, no additions are made to its inner portion, but new wood may continue to be formed on its outer surface, between it and the bark, all through the season. When, after a suspension of growth in winter, a second season of growth supervenes, a new layer of wood is formed outside the old one, and so on year after year. So the section of an exogenous tree trunk shows concentric layers-in all ordinary cases one for each year-the oldest next the pith, the youngest next the bark. Radiating plates in the cross-section lines more or less conspicuoustraverse this layer of wood from the pith to the bark, dividing it into wedges; these are the medullary rays, or silver grain. Between the bark and the wood is a thin zone of cells, called the cambium, from which are developed on the one side additions to the wood, on the other to the bark. The bark is subject to distention from within, from the increasing size of the woody cylinder. The older and outer bark is consequently sooner or later fissured and riven as well as worn and weathered by exposure to the elements.

TREE

palm stems nearly the whole becomes so closely packed with woody bundles as to form a hard wood. On account of this structure such trees have been called endogenous, "inside growing." Palm trunks soon become incapable of further enlargement, except in height. In place of a bark, distinct, separable, and of different layers, they are invested by an inseparable and permanent rind, which, along with the more solidified wood of the circumference, restricts distention.

Trees require much of moisture, and accordingly of rainfall, either through the year or through a growing season. An ordinary tree expands a large extent of evaporating surface, chiefly in its foliage. Leaves dry up and perish if not supplied with moisture to replace that which is evaporated. Therefore, not only are rainless districts treeless (except as water is supplied by irrigation), but regions of scanty summer rain are sparsely wooded or without forest. Broad-leaved evergreens abound where rains fall throughout the year, and especially where winter is unknown. Narrow-leaved or needle-leaved evergreen trees are chiefly in cooler climates well supplied with moisture. Trees with expanded foliage survive the rainless hot season of tropical regions only by dropping their leaves, upon which the stress first comes, and thereby reducing the evaporating surface. Those which retain their foliage are such as have some peculiar provision-by thickened skin or tough structure, to which, especially in Australia, is sometimes added a vertical instead of horizontal position of the leaves, which thus present their edges instead of one face to the high sun. This prevails among the Australian acacias and myrtles. In climates in which vegetable growth and action are arrested by winter, the trees are nearly all deciduous, except the piny evergreens, the leaves of which are peculiarly organized for resisting cold.

An exogenous tree, renewing annually its twigs and foliage above, its growth of roots beneath, and zone of new wood and bark connecting the two, has no definite limits to its existence. Increase of size, height, or spread of branches, and other inevitable consequences of age, however, bring increasing, and at length inevitable, disadvantages and liabilities, so that practically most trees, like most men, die an accidental death. Exogenous trees are known, by the actual counting of their layers, to have attained the age of from 1,200 to fully 2,000 years; it is probable that some extant trees are considerably older. The tallest trees known The character of the tree depends much upon rise little less than 500 ft. (Eucalyptus, in its mode of branching, and this primarily upon Australia). The largest in girth are trees of the arrangement of leaves upon the twigs; for Eucalyptus, up to 81 ft.; giant redwoods, in the branches of the spray proceed from lateral California, up to 91, and possibly 100 ft.; boab buds, of which there is usually a single one in trees of Senegal, some of which have reached the axil of each leaf. Palm trees are the more the latter circumference, but they are low trees common type in which the stems do not in- of rapid growth even when old, and probably crease in thickness. They rise by a simple of no extreme age; and, finally, there is a trunk, not tapering as it ascends, terminated Mexican Taxodium or bald cypress, a slowwith a crown of large and long-stalked leaves. growing tree, which measures 112 ft. in circumThis simple and mainly cylindrical trunk comes ference. If this does not consist of two or more from their whole vegetation being the develop- original trunks which have grown into onement of a single terminal bud. The center of which there are no external indications-it sometimes remains pithy, as it were, and sparse- is probably the oldest existing tree known. ly traversed by threads of wood, but in many See BOTANY; DECIDUOUS TREES; EVERGREENS.

TREE FROGS

Tre'foil. See CLOVER.

TRENTON

Tree Frogs, or Tree Toads, a class of frogs | induce the Protestants to return to the old which, by means of a round enlargement of faith. The Protestants, including Queen Elizathe tip of each toe, are able to climb trees, beth of England, were invited to attend, but where they feed upon insects. They are said they refused. In the fourth session (April 8, to be particularly noisy at the approach of | 1546) tradition was declared to be equally rain. In winter they bury themselves in the with the Bible a rule of faith; the Apocrypha mud of pools, and in the spring deposit their of the Old Testament were included in the eggs in the water. Of the N. American species, Biblical canon; the Vulgate was proclaimed to the Hyla squirella, about 1 in. long, is of a be the authentic version of the Bible, and the brownish or gray color. church its only legitimate interpreter. An adjournment to Bologna on account of the plague took place, March 11, 1547. On April 28, 1552, on account of the war of the Protestant princes with Charles V, the sessions were again suspended, till January 18, 1562. Decrees were adopted ordering an index of prohibited books to be made, and defining the doctrines of the mass, ordination, the hierarchy, marriage, celibacy, purgatory, the veneration of saints, relics, and images, monastic vows, indulgences, and fasting and abstinence. Several "reformatory" decrees were also passed.

Trelaw'ney, Edward John, 1792-1881; English author and soldier of fortune; known especially as the author of a novel, in great part autobiographical, "Adventures of a Younger Son," and "Recollections of Shelley and Byron," reissued as "Records of Byron, Shelley, and the Author." In 1823 he joined Byron in Greece and fought in the Greek war of lib

eration.

Tremato'dea, a group of parasitic flatworms in which parasitism has produced but slight degeneration. The body is usually flattened, lacks cilia and all traces of segmentation; the mouth is anterior and communicates with a digestive tract which forks after a short extent. Upon the lower surface are one, two, or more suckers for adhesion to the host, and sometimes these are reënforced by hooks. Like all flatworms, they lack a body cavity and distinct circulatory organs, while the excretory system is well developed. Most species have the sexes separate.

Trem'ulous Pop'lar. See ASPEN.

Trench, Richard Chenevix, 1807-86; Irish archbishop and author; b. in Dublin; educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and graduated 1829; spent some years in travel; took orders in the Church of England, 1833; curate and rector, 1833-45; appointed examining chaplain to the Bishop of Oxford, 1845; Hulsean lecturer, 1845-46; Prof. of Theology at King's College, London, 1846-58; Dean of Westminster, 185663, and ordained Archbishop of Dublin, 1864; resigned, 1884. In the field of philology he achieved distinction, and his paper on the "Deficiencies in Our English Dictionaries gave the first impulse to the great New English Dictionary, edited by Dr. James A. H. Murray.

Trent, a river of England. It rises in Biddulph Moor, in Staffordshire, at 600 ft. above the sea level, flows SE., and forms the Humber after joining the Ouse, 15 m. W. of Hull. Its length is about 150 m., and it is navigable for about two thirds of its course.

Trent Affair', the seizure of the Confederates Slidell and Mason on board the British steamer Trent in 1861, and the resulting international complications.

Trent, Coun'cil of (concilium Tridentinum), the nineteenth ecumenical council, according to the Roman Catholic Church. Paul III convoked it for November 1, 1542, but it did not open till December 13, 1545. The objects of the council were to effect a reformation of the church, to define more explicitly the impugned doctrines of the church, and, if possible, to

The council closed on December 4, 1563, at its twenty-fifth public session. The decrees were signed by 255 members, and were confirmed by Pius IV, who reserved to himself and his successors the right of explaining obscure or controverted points. Its results inaugurated a counter reformation, personified in men like St. Charles Borromeo and St. Francis de Sales, and unified Catholics throughout the world.

Trente-et-Un (träǹt'-ā-ŭǹ). See ROUGE-ET

NOIR.

Tren'ton, capital of N. J., on the Delaware River, at the head of navigation; 33 m. NE. of Philadelphia. Here are the state school for deaf-mutes, state prison, insane asylum, and industrial school for girls. The Odd Fellows' Home is near the city line. The Widows' and Single Women's Home, near the State House, was formerly the barracks used during the French and Indian War. Trenton is the seat of a Protestant Episcopal and Roman Catholic bishopric. The first public school in the state was at Trenton. Besides common schools and a high school, Trenton contains the State Normal and Model School, the Franciscan Convent of Minor Conventuals, the Union Industrial Home, and many private schools. Trenton is preeminently a manufacturing city; potteries making all classes of ware from drain pipe to china, tile companies, and many brickyards comprise an industry which gives the NE. portion of the city (old Millham) the name Staffordshire of America. Iron and steel works, woolen mills, flouring mills, rubber and oilcloth works, and a large brewery are other Here also are representative establishments. the great wire works of the Roeblings, builders of the Brooklyn Bridge.

Trenton's site attracted settlers as early as 1679, when the place was called "Ye ffalles of ye De La Ware," from the rifts of rock in front of the town. Mahlon Stacy and other members of the Society of Friends purchased land, and Stacy built on the Assanpink in 1680, the second flour mill in W. Jersey. About 1715 Judge Trent bought a large plantation, and the place came to be called Trent Town

(Trenton). A royal charter created Trenton | ity College, Cambridge; entered the E. Indian a borough town about the middle of the eighteenth century, but the plan was soon abandoned. The legislature often met here before Trenton became the state capital (1790). In 1792 the town was incorporated. The Continental Congress once met here after the Revolutionary War, and a project to have Trenton made the capital of the U. S. was defeated by state jealousies. Here the battle was fought which perhaps turned the tide of the Revolution. On the morning of December 25, 1776, Washington, with about 2,500 men, crossed the Delaware from Pennsylvania about 8 m. above Trenton, and after a forced march surprised Col. Rall, the Hessian commander, and captured his entire force. This was followed by the battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777. A shaft in Monument Park at the old Five Points commemorates the event. Pop. (1910) est. at 100,000.