UNITED STATES ceive some practice in conjunction with the regular army. The navy has 22,500 men, and some of the states maintain also a naval militia. (See NAVY.) of Finance.-Receipts of the Federal Govt. are derived from custom duties, internal-revenue taxes, the postal service, and miscellaneous sources. Disbursements are on account maintenance of the various administration departments, interest on the public debt, and pensions. The public debt, which in 1866 amounted to $2,773,000,000, has now been reduced nearly to one third of this amount. The currency in circulation is chiefly paper, all of which is exchangeable at par for gold. This paper consists in part of gold certificates, in part of silver certificates, in part of the U. S. notes ("greenbacks"), and in part of guaranteed national-bank notes. Some gold also circulates and much silver, chiefly as fractional currency. All silver is now token money, no silver coin being intrinsically worth its face value. The Revenue and Expenditure for 1908 were as follows: 191,478,663 UNITED STATES | Finally, the so-called French and Indian War (1754-63) ended in the fall of Quebec, and put the British in possession of all the territory E. of the Mississippi. This war was the cause of the first important attempt to unite all the English colonies in America. A scheme of union was framed by a convention held at Albany, N. Y., in 1754, but rejected by the British authorities as conferring dangerous powers on the colonies. In 1765 delegates from nine colonies met at New York to resist the obnoxious Stamp Act passed by Parliament for colonial taxation, which was repealed in 1766. Further efforts of the mother country to raise revenue in the colonies, resisted by the latter as involving "taxation without representation," led to the first "Continental Congress" of 1774. It met in Philadelphia, all the thirteen colonies but Georgia being represented, and adopted a declaration of rights, denying the right of Parliament to tax the colonies. On April 19, 1775, occurred the battle of Lexington-an unforeseen conflict between colonial militia and British troops, and on May 10th following, the second Continental Con$286,113,130 gress met at Philadelphia. Armed resistance 251,711,127 to Britain had not been contemplated, but the actual outbreak of war in New England, followed by the siege of Boston and the battle of Bunker Hill, resulted in the raising of a con5,222,994 tinental army by the Congress, the choice of 3,575,835 George Washington as commander in chief, 26,971,146 and, finally, in the adoption of the Declaration $792,604,782 of Independence on July 4, 1776. Articles of confederation were adopted in 1777-81, the $206,770,243 war during this time being prosecuted by a 118,780,233 government without coercive power. Troops 153,892,467 under Sir William Howe defeated Washington 21,426,138 on Long Island, August 27, 1776, and drove him finally beyond the Delaware, afterwards 14,579,756 pushing into Pennsylvania and capturing 8,232,516 Philadelphia. Another British army, under $850,674,983 Burgoyne, invaded the country from Canada, but after two severe battles was compelled to surrender to Gen. Gates near Saratoga, October 17, 1777-probably the turning point of the war. Shortly afterwards treaties of alli 139,927,465 38,093,425 148,972,740 Religion.—The utmost religious freedom prevails, religious bodies being allowed to form and govern themselves at will, provided they keep within the limits of the civil law. Nearly all such bodies are avowedly Christian, and, although a religious complexion is nowhere given to the Government, many of its customs and acts presuppose a body of Christian, or at least of theistic, citizens. Such are the appointment of Christian chaplains for the houses of Congress, the exaction of oaths of office, mottoes such as "In God we Trust" on coinage and elsewhere. There are about twenty Christian denominations having membership of 50,000 or over, and numerous smaller ones. History. The early history of N. America is largely that of a struggle between the English and the French. The former established colonies along the Atlantic from Nova Scotia to Florida, and the latter, with the St. Lawrence and Canada as a base, pushed along the Great Lakes and down to the mouth of the Mississippi. The English claims to the country westward of their settlements conflicted with the French; hence several wars, in which the Indians generally fought on the French side. ance and commerce between France and the U. S. were signed (February, 1778), and a French fleet was sent to aid the Americans. Philadelphia was evacuated by the British, but Sir Henry Clinton, carrying the war into the South, captured Savannah, Ga., and in April, 1790, Charleston, S. C., fell into his hands. The Americans were defeated at Camden, S. C. Gen. Benedict Arnold at this juncture entered into a treasonable compact with the British to surrender his post at West Point, N. Y., which was discovered and frustrated by the arrest and execution, as a spy, of Maj. John André. American successes at King's Mountain, N. C., and at Cowpens, Guilford, and Eutaw, finally culminated in the siege of Yorktown, Va., and its surrender with 8,000 men by Lord Cornwallis. A preliminary treaty of peace was signed in 1782, and a definitive treaty on September 3, 1783. The existing confederation being without adequate authority, the Congress in 1787 summoned a convention to meet at Philadelphia, UNITED STATES and this body submitted to the states the pres- UNITED STATES son, the first Democratic President, the socalled "spoils system" of filling all offices with adherents of the victorious party became prevalent, and the issue of "nullification" arose the alleged right of a state to act as the judge of the constitutionality of a Federal law affecting itself. The high-tariff acts of the administration were thus declared void by S. Carolina. War was prevented by the modification of the obnoxious measure and the mediation of Virginia. Jackson withdrew Government deposits from the Bank of the U. S., thus causing it to fail. In the next administration, that of Van Buren, long-continued financial and industrial distress lost the Democrats their hold on the country, and Gen. W. H. Harrison, a Whig, was elected President in 1840. Harrison died suddenly a month after his inauguration, and John Tyler, the Vice President, who succeeded, quarreled with his party on the national bank question. At this time the Republic of Texas, a revolted province of Mexico, colonized largely from the S. states, had applied for admission to the U. S. A treaty of annexation prepared by the administration was rejected, and became the issue of the next election. James K. Polk, an advocate of annexation, was chosen President, but before his inauguration Congress had formally annexed Texas. The result, owing to boundary disputes, involved war with Mexico, which lasted from 1846 until 1848. Gen. Zachary Taylor occupied N. Mexico, and Gen. Winfield Scott landed an army at Vera Cruz and marched on the city of Mexico, ending the war by its capture. Mexico was forced to cede to the U. S. Texas, New Mexico, and upper California. During this war, boundary disputes with Great Britain in the NW. almost led to hostilities. The U. S. claimed territory as far N. as lat. 54° 40', and one of the Democratic watchwords had been Fiftyfour Forty or Fight! The forty-ninth parallel was finally agreed upon as a compromise. دو 66 This war closed the era of the history of the U. S. when foreign relations engrossed public attention. Financial and industrial questions now assumed importance, and chief among The addition of so much territory, acquired these were the tariff and slavery. In Monroe's from Mexico, in the S. now caused the slavery administration, 1817-25, called "the era of question to become acute again. In 1850 a. good feeling," occurred Jackson's punitive ex- compromise, proposed by Henry Clay, was pedition against the Seminole Indians of the adopted admitting California as a free state, then Spanish province of Florida, resulting in but making extensive concessions to Texas, and the annexation of Florida in 1819. At this endeavoring to secure the return of fugitive time also was framed the so-called "Monroe slaves by stringent provisions. Antislavery feelDoctrine," proclaiming that interference of ing now rose high in the North. Mrs. Stowe's European countries on either American conti- "Uncle Tom's Cabin," published in 1852, did nent would be regarded as hostile to the U. S. much to inflame public opinion, and NorthMany new states were admitted to the Union erners became active in assisting fugitive slaves about this time. Negro slavery had disap- to escape to Canada. The repeal of the Mispeared from the N. states, and the industrial souri Compromise by the passage of the Kansituation in "slave" and "free" states began sas-Nebraska Bill, leaving the determination to be contrasted and discussed. It began to of the slavery question to the inhabitants, was be a question at issue whether a new state a result of the so-called doctrine of "popular should be "slave" or "free." In 1820 was sovereignty" advocated by Stephen A. Douglas, adopted the so-called Missouri Compromise of Illinois. The result was an immediate conthe admission of Missouri as a slave state and test for the colonization of Kansas, accomthat of Maine as a free state, with prohibition panied by much violence, and amounting often of slavery in all unorganized territory N. of to civil war, which continued nearly to the 36° 30'. Soon after this the Republicans time of the war of 1861. In 1856 the Repubbegan to be known as Democrats," under lican Party, formed to oppose the extension which name the party has since existed. The of slavery to the territories, nominated its first opposing party became known as Whigs. Un-presidential candidate, Gen. John C. Frémont, der the administration of Gen. Andrew Jack-who was narrowly defeated. Its second effort 66 66 UNITED STATES and this body submitted to the states the present Constitution, which went into operation on June 21, 1788, having been ratified by nine states, the four others shortly afterwards acceding. The new government was installed on April 6, 1789, by the inauguration of George Washington as first President of the U. S. Party lines were soon afterwards formed, dividing the country into Federalists and Anti-Federalists, or Republicans, the former favoring centralization and a strong national government, the latter opposing these measures and sympathizing with France. The Federalists held power through the administrations of Washington and Adams, but were defeated by Thomas Jefferson in 1800. War was waged with the Barbary pirates under the Bey of Tripoli from 1801-5. During this period, in 1803, Napoleon I sold to the U. S. for $15,000,000 the vast territory of France beyond the Mississippi. This is known as the "Louisiana Purchase." Napoleon's avowed object was to weaken Great Britain. In her efforts to resist France, Britain at this time exercised with great severity her alleged right to stop and search neutral vessels for subjects of her own, for impressment into her navy. Several exasperating incidents did much to hasten war, which was finally declared in 1812, under Madison's administration. This "War of 1812," which lasted until December 24, 1814, nominally effected little, but, in spite of the capture and burning of Washington by the British, American successes on the ocean and the lakes, which greatly enhanced the naval prestige of the U. S., and Jackson's decisive victory at New Orleans over Wellington's veteran troops under Sir Edward Pakenham, practically settled the question of search and impressment, although these were not mentioned in the treaty of peace. This war closed the era of the history of the U. S. when foreign relations engrossed public attention. Financial and industrial questions now assumed importance, and chief among these were the tariff and slavery. In Monroe's administration, 1817-25, called "the era of good feeling," occurred Jackson's punitive expedition against the Seminole Indians of the then Spanish province of Florida, resulting in the annexation of Florida in 1819. At this time also was framed the so-called "Monroe Doctrine," proclaiming that interference of European countries on either American continent would be regarded as hostile to the U. S. Many new states were admitted to the Union about this time. Negro slavery had disappeared from the N. states, and the industrial situation in "slave” and “free” states began to be contrasted and discussed. It began to be a question at issue whether a new state should be "slave" or "free." In 1820 was adopted the so-called Missouri Compromise the admission of Missouri as a slave state and that of Maine as a free state, with prohibition of slavery in all unorganized territory N. of 36° 30'. Soon after this the " Republicans began to be known as "Democrats," under which name the party has since existed. The opposing party became known as Whigs. Under the administration of Gen. Andrew Jack UNITED STATES 66 son, the first Democratic President, the socalled " spoils system' " of filling all offices with adherents of the victorious party became prevalent, and the issue of nullification arose the alleged right of a state to act as the judge of the constitutionality of a Federal law affecting itself. The high-tariff acts of the administration were thus declared void by S. Carolina. War was prevented by the modification of the obnoxious measure and the mediation of Virginia. Jackson withdrew Government deposits from the Bank of the U. S., thus causing it to fail. In the next administration, that of Van Buren, long-continued financial and industrial distress lost the Democrats their hold on the country, and Gen. W. H. Harrison, a Whig, was elected President in 1840. Harrison died suddenly a month after his inauguration, and John Tyler, the Vice President, who succeeded, quarreled with his party on the national bank question. At this time the Republic of Texas, a revolted province of Mexico, colonized largely from the S. states, had applied for admission to the U. S. A treaty of annexation prepared by the administration was rejected, and became the issue of the next election. James K. Polk, an advocate of annexation, was chosen President, but before his inauguration Congress had formally annexed Texas. The result, owing to boundary disputes, involved war with Mexico, which lasted from 1846 until 1848. Gen. Zachary Taylor occupied N. Mexico, and Gen. Winfield Scott landed an army at Vera Cruz and marched on the city of Mexico, ending the war by its capture. Mexico was forced to cede to the U. S. Texas, New Mexico, and upper California. During this war, boundary disputes with Great Britain in the NW. almost led to hostilities. The U. S. claimed territory as far N. as lat. 54° 40', and one of the Democratic watchwords had been " Fiftyfour Forty or Fight! The forty-ninth parallel was finally agreed upon as a compromise. The addition of so much territory, acquired from Mexico, in the S. now caused the slavery question to become acute again. In 1850 a. compromise, proposed by Henry Clay, was adopted admitting California as a free state, but making extensive concessions to Texas, and endeavoring to secure the return of fugitive slaves by stringent provisions. Antislavery feeling now rose high in the North. Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin," published in 1852, did much to inflame public opinion, and Northerners became active in assisting fugitive slaves to escape to Canada. The repeal of the Missouri Compromise by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, leaving the determination of the slavery question to the inhabitants, was a result of the so-called doctrine of "popular sovereignty" advocated by Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois. The result was an immediate contest for the colonization of Kansas, accompanied by much violence, and amounting often to civil war, which continued nearly to the time of the war of 1861. In 1856 the Republican Party, formed to oppose the extension of slavery to the territories, nominated its first presidential candidate, Gen. John C. Frémont, who was narrowly defeated. Its second effort |