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SAILING also denotes a particular me thod of navigation; in which sense we say, Mercator's sailing, plane sailing, parallel sailing, middle latitude sailing, and great circle sailing.

SAILING, great circle, in navigation, the art of finding what places a ship must go through, and what courses to steer; so that her tract shall be in the arch of a great circle, or nearly so, passing through the place sailed from and that bound to. It is chiefly on account of the shortest distance, that this method of sailing has been proposed; for in the sphere, it is well known that the shortest distance between two places is the arch of a great circle intercepted between them, and not in the rhumb or spiral passing through those places.

As, in Mercator's sailing, the several cases are solved by plane triangles; so the solution of the cases of great circle-sailing is obtained by means of spherical triangles and, therefore, the navigator should be master of spherical trigonometry, before he attempts this method. See TRIGONO

METRY.

SAILORS, the principal seamen who are employed in working or managing the sails, the tackle, steering, &c.

SAL ammoniac, natural, in mineralogy, a species of the fossil salts, is of a greyish white colour, passing to yellow. It is flaky, and of a saline consistence. It occurs massive, and likewise crystallized: the crystals are small and adhere or intersect one another; externally shining, internally splendent or shining, and lustre vitreous. The substance is composed of

Muriate of ammonia ... 97.50
Sulphate of ammonia.. 2.50

100.00

sential character: monogynous, or onestyled; calyx five-parted; corolla five-petalled; anthers placed on the apex of the germ. There are two species, viz. S. chinensis, and S. cochinchinensis.

SALE of goods. If a man agrees for the purchase of goods, he shall pay for them, before he carries them away, unless some term of credit is expressly agreed upon.

If a man upon the sale of goods, warrants them to be good, the law annexes to this contract a tacit warranty, that if they be not so, he shall make compensation to the purchaser; such warranty, however, must be on the sale. But if the vender knew the goods to be unsound, and has used any art to disguise them, or if in any respect, they differ from what he represents them to be to the purchaser, he will be answerable for their goodness, though no general warranty will extend to those defects that are obvious to the senses.

If two persons come to a warehouse, and one buys, and the other to procure him credit, promises the seller, "if he do not pay you, I will;" this is a collateral undertaking, and void without writing, by the statutes of frauds; but if he say, let him have, the goods, I will be your paymaster, this is an absolute undertaking as for himself, and he shall be intended to be the real buyer, and the other to act only as his servant. The question in these cases is always which party was originally trusted. For if the party to whom the goods are delivered was ever considered as responsible, the engagement of the other is void, unless it is in writing; after earnest is given, the vender cannot sell the goods to another without a default in the vender, and therefore, if the vendee does not come and pay, and take the goods, the vender ought to give him notice for that purpose; and then if he does not come and pay, and take away the goods in convenient time, the agreement is dissolved, and he is at liberty to sell them to any other person.

SALEP, or SALOP. See SAGO.

SALIANT, in fortification, denotes projecting. There are two kinds of angles, the one saliant, which are those that pre

When placed on burning coals it emits a peculiar odour, and is volatilized in the form of white smoke; when burned or rubbed with lime, it emits an ammoniacal smell. It is said to be the product of volcanoes, and pseudo-volcanoes, where it occurs in different forms; it is also found in the waters of different lakes in Tuscany; it is found at Vesuvius, Etna, and the Li-sent their point outwards; the other repari Æolian islands; in France; at Mount Hecla, in Iceland; and in the vicinity of inflamed beds of coal in Scotland and England. It is also found in divers parts of Asia, and in the Isle of Bourbon.

SALACIA, in botany, a genus of the Gynandria Triandria class and order. Es

entering, which have their points inwards. Instances of both kinds we have in tenailles and star-works.

SALIANT, SALIENT, or SAILLANT, in heraldry, is applied to a lion, or other beast, when its fore-legs are raised in a leaping posture. A lion salient is that which is

erected bend-ways, standing so as that his right fore-foot is the dexter chief point, and his hinder left foot is the sinister base point of the escutcheon, by which it is distinguish ed from rampant.

SALIC, or SALIQUE LAW, an ancient and fundamental law of the kingdom of France, usually supposed to have been made by Pharamond, or at least by Clovis, in virtue whereof males are only to inherit.

SALICORNIA in botany, jointed glasswort, a genus of the Monandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Holoraceæ. Atriplices, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx, ventricose, entire; petals none; stamens one or two; seed one covered by the calyx. There are nine species, of which the most remarkable is the S. perennis, with a shrubby branching stalk, which grows naturally in Sheppey island. They are perennial, and produce their flowers in the same manner as the former. The inhabitants near the sea-coasts where these plants grow, cut them up toward the latter end of summer, when they are fully grown and after having dried them in the sun, they burn them for their ashes, which are used in making of glass and soap. These herbs are by the country people called kelp, and promiscuously gathered for use.

SALISBURIA, in botany, so named in honour of Richard Anthony Salisbury, a genus of the Monoecia Polyandria class and order. Essential character: male, amentaceous; anthers incumbent, deltoid: female, solitary; calyx four cleft; drupe with a triangular shell. There is only one species,

riz. S. adiantifolia.

SALIVA. The saliva which is secreted by peculiar glands, and which flows into the mouth, is a clear viscid fluid, without taste or smell. It has generally a frothy appear ance, being mixed with a quantity of air. Saliva has a strong attraction for oxygen, which by trituration it communicates to some metallic substances, as mercury, gold, and silver. When saliva is boiled in water, albumen is precipitated, and when it is slowly evaporated, muriate of soda is obtained. À vegetable gluten remains behind, which burns with the odour of prussic acid. Saliva becomes thick by the action of acids, Oxalic acid precipitates lime. Saliva is also inspissated by alcohol. It is decomposed by the alkalies; and the nitrates of lead, of mercury, and the silver, precipitate muriatic and phosphoric acids. By distillation in a retort, it froths up, affords nearly

four-fifths of its quantity of water almost pure, a little carbonate of ammonia, some oil, and an acid. What remains behind consists of muriate of soda, phosphate of soda and of lime.

SALIX, in botany, willow, a genus of the Dioccia Diandria class and order. Natural order of Amentaceæ. Essential character: calyx ament, composed of scales; corolla none: male, nectary a melliferous gland: female, style bifid; capsule one celled, two valved; seeds downy. There are fiftythree species; of which we may notice the following: the S. caprea, or common sallowtree, grows to but a moderate height, having smooth, dark-green, brittle branches; oval, waved, rough leaves, indented at top, and woolly underneath. It grows abundantly in this country, but more frequently in dry than moist situations. It is of a brittle nature, and unfit for the basket-makers; but will serve for poles, stakes, and to lop for firewood; and its timber is good for many purposes. The S. alba, white, or silver-leaved willow, grows to a great height and considerable bulk, having smooth, pale-green shoots; long, spear-shaped, acuminated, sawed, silvery-white leaves, being downy on both sides, with glands below the serratus. This is the common white willow, which grows abundantly about towns and villages, and by the sides of rivers and brooks, &c. S. fragiles, fragile or crack willow, rises to a middling stature, with brownish, very fragile, or brittle branches; long, oval, lanceolate, sawed, smooth leaves of a shining green on both sides, having dentated glandular foot-stalks. This sort in particular being exceedingly fragile, so that it easily cracks and breaks, is unfit for culture in osier-grounds. S. Babylonica, Babylonian pendulous Salix, commonly called weeping willow, grows to a largish size, having numerous, long, slender, pendulous branches, hanging down loosely all round in a curious manuer, and long; narrow, spear-shaped, serrated, smooth leaves. This curious willow is a native of the East.

All the species of Salix are of the tree kind, very hardy, remarkably fast growers, and several of them attaining a considerable stature when permitted to run up to standards. They are usually of the aquatic tribe, being generally the most abundant, and of most prosperous growth, in watery situations; they, however, will grow freely almost any where, in any common soil and exposure; but considerably the fastest and strongest in low moist land,

particularly in marshy situations, by the verges of rivers, brooks, and other waters; likewise along the sides of ditches, &c. which places often lying waste, may be employed to good advantage in plantations of willows for different purposes.

SALLY, in the military art, the issuing out of the besieged, from their town or fort, and falling upon the besiegers in their works, in order to cut them off, nail their cannon, hinder the progress of their approaches, destroy their works, &c.

SALMASIA, in botany, so named in memory of Claudius Salmasius, a genus of the Pentandria Trigynia class and order. Natural order of Cisti, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx, five parted; corolla, five petalled; style none; capsule, three celled, three valved, many seeded. There is but one species, viz. S. racemosa, a native of the woods of Guiana.

SALMO, the salmon, in natural history, a genus of fishes of the order Abdominales. Generic character: head smooth, compress ed; tongue white and cartilaginous; teeth in the jaws and on the tongue; gill-membrane from four to twelve-rayed; body furnished at the hind part with an adipose fin. Gmelin enumerates fifty-five species, and Shaw sixty-two, of which we shall notice the following:

S. salar, or the common salmon. This abounds principally in the Northern Seas, which it quits at particular periods, to ascend rivers to a very considerable height, and deposit its spawn in them. In order to gain the favourite spots in rivers for this purpose, which are sometimes at the distance of several hundred miles from the ocean, these fishes will overcome difficulties of surprising extent, stemming the most rushing currents, and leaping with astonishing activity over various elevations. It is related, that the same individual fishes will return to the same spot for a succession of seasons; in this respect exhibiting preferences similar to those of birds in similar circumstances. The salmon is generally about two feet and three-quarters long, and has been seen of the length of six, and weighing, in this case, seventy-four pounds. This fish is remarkable for the excellence of its flavour, and its richness, and is a welcome dish at every table. It constitutes, also, an important article of commerce. The principal fishery for salmon, in this island, is at Berwick on the Tweed. In November, they begin to ascend that river, and soon afterwards deposit their spawn

with extreme care, in recesses in the sands. Here it remains till the advance of spring, when the young are completely developed, and grow with such rapidity, that, by the beginning of August, they attain to the weight of six or seven pounds, and occasionally even more. Some hundreds have been occasionally taken in a single draught; but the average number is not above fifty. These fishes, in their most abundant season, are salted and barrelled for exportation. The principal part of these, taken before April, is sent to the London market, in a fresh state, and packed in ice. In July, the most plentiful month in the year, salmon have been sold at Berwick, at the rate of less than a halfpenny per pound. The rent of the forty principal salmon-fisheries on the Tweed, between its mouth and fourteen miles upwards, towards its source, amounted, many years since, to between five and six thousand pounds per annum, and the number of fishes annually taken by these, is calculated at upwards of two hundred thousand. It is a singular circumstance, that no food, if we may believe the uniform statements of fishermen, is ever found in the stomach of the salmon; yet fishes and worms are employed by the angler with success in taking them. The case may possibly be, that, at particular seasons, they may totally neglect food, as is the case with some other species of animals, particularly seals, which abstain for a series of months, and this instance of exception may have been exaggerated into a universal practice.

S. farió, or common trout, is found in almost all the European streams, at least such as are cool and clear. Its length, in general, is about fourteen inches. Occasionally, it has been known to weigh ten pounds. Trout of the common size, however, are far preferable to those of such extraordinary magnitude. These fishes subsist on worms, small fishes, shell-fish, and water-insects. They are extremely rapacious and devouring, and not unfrequently prey upon each other. Those are most esteemed which are found in the coldest streams, and they are generally regarded as an elegant and luxurious article of food, They appear to have been only slightly known to the Greeks and Romans, and to have been rather admired for the beauty of their appearance, than eagerly sought after for the table.

S. salvelinus, or red charr, is about a foot long, very similar in form to the common

salmon, but more slender. It abounds in the rivers of Siberia, and the lakes of Germany, and in this country, in the lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland. It is considered as one of the highest delicacies, and has the most brilliant colours, and finest flavour, when inhabiting the coldest

waters.

The S. eperlanus, or smelt, is about seven inches long, highly elegant, of a tapering form, and semi-transparent appearance. It has an odour not unlike that proceeding from vegetables, and which has by some been resembled to that of a violet, and by others to that of a cucumber. In the winter months it is caught in extreme abundance in the rivers Thames and Dee.

The S. Greenlandicus, or Greenland salmon. These abound off the coast of Greenland, where they are taken in vast quantities and dried, not only for the use of man, but of cattle, for which they constitute a valuable food in winter. It is about the size of a smelt.

S. thymallus, or the grayling, is about a foot and a half long, and abounds in the rivers of mountainous countries in Europe and Asia. It resembles the trout in form. In some of the rivers of England, it is found in great perfection. It feeds on insects and fishes, and is highly voracious, catches with extreme avidity at the bait, and swims with extraordinary rapidity, passing through the water like a dart, or a meteor through the air.

SALON, or SALOON, in architecture, a very lofty spacious hall, vaulted at top, and sometimes comprehending two stories or ranges of windows. The salon is a grand room in the middle of a building, or at the head of a gallery, &c. Its faces or sides ought all to have a symmetry with each other; and as it usually takes up the height of two stories, its ceiling, should be with a moderate sweep. Salons are frequently built square, and sometimes octagonal.

SALPA, in natural history, a genus of the Vermes Mollusca class and order: body loose, nayant, gelatinous, tubular, and open at each extremity: intestine placed obliquely eleven species have been enumerated, in two divisions; A furnished with an appendage: B. without the terminal appendage. The animals of this genus are of a gregarious nature and often adhere together they swim with great facility, and have the power of contracting or opening at pleasure the cavities at the extremities.

SALS OLA, in botany, salt-wort, a genus

of the Pentandria Digynia class and order. Natural order of Holoracea. Atriplices, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx, five. leaved, corolla none; capsule one-seeded; seed screw-shaped. There are thirty-one species. These plants are well known for producing alkaline salt, commonly called barilla, soda, or kelp; many of them are herbaceous and annual, some have shrubby stems. The leaves are generally alternate, in some opposite, others round or flat; flowers terminating or axillary. S. kali grows naturally in the salt marshes in divers parts of England. It is an annual plant, which rises above five or six inches high, sending out many side branches, which spread on every side, with short awlshaped leaves, which are fleshy, and terminate in acute spines. S. soda rises with herbaceous stalks near three feet high, spreading wide. The leaves on the prin cipal stalk, and those on the lower part of the branches, are long, slender, and have no spines; those on the upper part of the stalk and branches are slender, short, and crooked. All the sorts of glass-wort are some. times promiscuously used for making soda or mineral alkali, but this species is esteemed best. The manner of making it is as follows: having dug a trench near the sea, they place laths across it, on which they lay the herbs in heaps, and having made a fire below, the liquor which runs out of the herbs drops to the bottom, which at length thickening, becomes soda, which is partly of a black, and partly of an ash-colour, very sharp and corrosive, and of a saltish taste. This, when thoroughly hardened, becomes like a stone, and in that state is transported to different countries for the making of glass, soap, &c.

SALT, culinary, or MURIATE of SODA. This salt is one of the most abundant productions of nature, and exists native in much greater quantity than any other neutral salt. The waters of the ocean owe their saltness to it, it is found in a number of mineral springs, and it forms immense strata in the bowels of the earth, or rising on the surface, even to the height of mountains. According as it is produced from these sources, it is named sea-salt, or rocksalt. Rock-salt is solid, hard, and more or

less transparent, of a white, grey, or reddish colour, sometimes of a bright or deep red, or yellow, and more rarely with spots of blue. Its fracture is foliated or fibrous; generally it is massive, but sometimes crystallized in cubes, and its fragments are al

ways of a cubical form. The colours have been supposed to depend on the oxide or muriate of iron. In general it is pure, and hence its taste is purely saline; but sometimes it is bitter from the presence of foreign salts. There are immense mines of it in different countries. Those of Cracow, in Gallicia, have been long celebrated. It abounds in the east and south of Germany, is found in large quantities in Spain, and likewise in Cheshire, in England. In Africa, Asia, and America, it is not less extensively distributed, forming hills above the surface, or very extensive beds. It is always connected with rocks of secondary formation, and generally with gypsum or sulphate of lime.

Dr. Watson, in the second volume of his “Essays,” speaking of the salt mines, says, "There are several mines of rock-salt near Northwich in Cheshire, the first of which was discovered as they were boring for coal in the year 1670. The springs which are met with both above and below the level of the Northwich bed of rock-salt, are strongly impregnated with salt. This is easily accounted for: the rain-water, in sinking through the ground which lies over the rock-salt, at last arrives at the salt; its further descent is in a great measure obstructed by the solid body of salt; it rests upon it, and, in resting upon it, dissolves it, and thus constitutes a brine-spring above the level of the bed of rock-salt. The brinesprings, which are found below that level, probably arise from the water, which has dissolved a portion of rock-salt, in sinking to that depth in the earth. I have," continues the Doctor, "had the curiosity to go to the bottom of some of the most famous mines in England, but I never thought my labour, in these subterraneous expeditions, so well rewarded as in the sight of the rock-salt mines at Northwich. These are superior to the mines at Cracow, in Poland, which have, for many centuries, been the subject of general admiration." A single pit, at Northwich, yields, at a medium, 4,000 tons of salt in a year.

In different countries, the process of obtaining salt is different. In very cold climates, the water being received into shallow ditches during the winter, is frozen, by which a great part of the superfluons water is removed, and the remaining liquor af. fords salt, by artificial evaporation. In warm climates, it is obtained by spontaneous evaporation. The water is received jpto broad, shallow trenches at the sea-side,

without the reach of the tide. The bottom of these is made of clay, well beaten, and they are divided into several departments. The fluid being thus spread out on an exten. sive surface, quickly evaporates, and by sluices it is removed from one department to another, so that when it arrives at the last, it is a strong brine, and the salt is soon deposited. It is necessarily mixed with the clay of the ground, and with several of the neutral salts, and other impurities, which sea-water contains. Salt, prepared in this manner, is known by the name of bay-salt. In colder climates, recourse must be had to artificial evaporation. The water is heated in shallow iron pans. Muriate of soda possesses the singular property, that it is as soluble in cold as in hot water; after due evaporation, therefore, it begins to crystallize on the surface of the hot liquor; the crystals, as they increase, fall to the bottom of the vessel, are raked out, and set to drain. This is the process by which it is obtained in this country. Sometimes this method is conjoined with natural evaporation. The sea water, before it is received into the boiler, is pumped into a large reservoir, under which faggots of thorns, &c. are suspended. It is allowed to drop over these, and a large surface being thus presented to the atmosphere, while the air is also rapidly renewed, a considerably part of the water is evaporated. It is then conveyed to the boiler, and evaporated in the usual manner. Or, in some of the northern departments of France, the seawater is made to flow over a bottom of clay covered with sand, which favours both the evaporation of the water, and the concretion of the salt; the saline deposit, which is at length formed, is lixiviated with sea-water, which, becoming thus more impreg nated with salt, is concentrated by boiling, so as to afford it by hasty crystallization. Sea-salt, obtained by any of these processes, is never perfectly pure. Sea-water, by its analysis, is found to contain, besides muriate of soda, several other neutral salts, particularly muriate of magnesia, muriate of lime, and sulphate of soda. These being much more soluble in hot, than in cold wa ter, remain dissolved in the hot liquor, from which the salt crystallizes. A small quan tity of them, however, still adheres to the muriate of soda, they render it deliquescent, give it a bitter taste, and considerably im pair its antiseptic power. Different processes have therefore been contrived to obtain the salt free from these mixtures. The

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