XLVI. 1846. CHAP. interest which had put him on the throne. He called the French ambassador, M. Rossi, to his side, and shaking him affectionately by the hand, addressed to him the D'Haus- most cordial words, expressive of his gratitude and confisonville, ii. dence. Who could have foreseen that within two years M. Rossi was to fall a bleeding corpse on the steps of the throne which he had now so large a share in establishing?1 187, 189; Ann. Hist. xxix. 439, 440. 63. State of Italian opi time. Italy at this period was profoundly moved, not merely by the efforts of the Carbonari and other secret socienion at this ties which had so long laboured in its bosom, but by the general opinion of all the intelligent classes. Like France in 1789, it had arrived at one of those phases in national existence, when society, from a combination of causes, is in a manner precipitated into revolution. Like it, too, the direction of public thought by literary men had a large share in producing this effect. The works of the Comte di Balbo, of the Marquis d'Azeglio, and of the Abbé Giberti, which appeared from 1840 to 1846, had a large share in producing this effect. None but those who lived in Italy during those years can conceive how great was the sensation which they produced. The reason was, that they fell upon the public mind with the charm of novelty, combined with a large intermixture of truth. Asserting not less strenuously than the extreme revolutionists the necessity of an entire change in Italy, drawing no veil over its innumerable political and social evils, they inculcated an entirely different course of action to remove them. So far from preaching eternal war against those in authority, and combination to overthrow them by every means in their power, they recommended order, peace, and tranquillity, the reformation of abuses by the gentle methods of peace and persuasion, and a cordial concord between sovereigns and their subjects, to effect these objects, from a sense of the advantages they would confer on both. These doctrines, so easy to inculcate, so hard to practise in a world of selfishness, spread the XLVI. 1846. more readily among the educated and respectable classes, CHAP. that they divested, in appearance, political change of all its terrors, and made a constant appeal to the generous and benevolent, instead of the angry and selfish passions. The immense influence of these doctrines, as of the similar ones which were so general in the years immediately 1 Delle preceding the French Revolution, must be regarded as Speranze one great cause of the general assent which Liberal opin- vi.; Massiions obtained at this period in all parts of the Italian glio, c. vii. peninsula.1 d'Italia, c. mo d'Aze Pius IX. The character of the Pontiff who, at this critical junc- 64. ture, was called to fill the chair of St Peter, was pecu- Character of liarly calculated to foster these principles and encourage these hopes. Resembling the unhappy French monarch in many salient points of his character, he was the Louis XVI. of the Italian Revolution. Mild and affectionate in disposition, averse to violence, having a horror of blood, he aspired only to make himself loved, and he thought that all the objects of social reform might be attained by this blessed influence. He saw before him, in bright perspective, a pacific extirpation of abuses, unstained by blood, unmoistened by tears. His information, both in regard to his own and the neighbouring countries, was very considerable; and he was animated with a sincere desire to bring up Italy by pacific means to a level with those countries which had recently so much outstripped it in liberty, literature, and social progress. Unfortunately, like his predecessor in France, he wanted one quality which rendered all the rest of no avail, or rather rendered them the instruments of evil. He was destitute of firmness, and, like most ecclesiastics, had no practical acquaintance with mankind. He thought he would succeed in ruling men, and directing the social movement, which he saw was inevitable, by appealing only to the humane and generous feelings, forgetting that the violent and selfish are incessantly acting, and that unless they are firmly restrained, the movement will soon be perverted to the objects of XLVI. 1846. CHAP. rapine and spoliation. Experience soon taught him this; and in consequence he was forced into the arms of the other party, became the opponent of progress, and acquired the character of vacillation and inconsistency. Kind and benevolent, but weak and inexperienced, he was the man of all others best fitted to inaugurate, and least to direct or restrain a revolution. 65. amnesty, ports with which it was received. 1846. The first important act of the new Pontiff was one emiGeneral nently popular, and calculated, with reason, to win for him. and trans- the affectionate suffrages of all classes of his subjects. In common with other Italian states, there were at his accession a great number of persons either convicted of, or July 16, charged with, political offences, who were in confinement or banished from Rome. Their relations and friends were naturally extremely anxious to obtain an amnesty for these unhappy persons, many of whom were highly connected, and the most enlightened and generous persons in the State. It was universally felt, accordingly, that a general amnesty would be the most popular step that could possibly be adopted by the new Pontiff; and at his accession Cardinal Ferretti, one of his most intimate friends, said to the French ambassador, "Be not afraid, M. l'Ambassadeur; we shall soon have the amnesty and railways, and all will go well." Yielding alike to his own inclination and the general wish, Pius IX. proclaimed the amnesty, and the joyous news was early on the morning of the 16th July placarded all over Rome. No words can paint the transports which ensued. The prison doors were opened; their country was restored to fifteen hundred captives or exiles. From morning to night crowds of all ranks and professions hastened to the Quirinal to express 18, 1846 to the holy father the unbounded joy which the act of 201, 202, mercy had diffused. Twice in the space of a few hours Regnault, the Pope gave his blessing to successive multitudes which Ann. Hist. filled the place, and on their knees received the sacred xxix. 439, 440. benediction; and as a third crowd arrived from the more distant parts of the city, he came out, contrary to 1 M. Rossi à M. Gui zot, July D'Haussonville, ii. iii. 309; etiquette, after nightfall, and by torchlight again be- CHAP. A spontaneous illumina stowed it amidst tears of joy. tion lighted up the whole city. XLVI. 1846. 66. of the Pope. The general hopes which were thus awakened were not damped by the first administrative acts of the new First acts Pontiff. He found it no easy matter, however, to withstand the innumerable applications for offices, pensions, or succour of some sort, with which he was assailed by the partisans of the new Liberal regime with which he was now identified, or those who represented themselves as having been sufferers under the old. The limited and embarrassed finances of the Holy See afforded but scanty means of satisfying the avidity of the Liberals of all Italy, who at once fell as a burden upon them. Great numbers, accordingly, were disappointed; their murmurs were loud and long; and before many months had elapsed, the popularity of the Pontiff decreased, and when he appeared in public, on the 7th November, in the Church Nov. 7. of St Charles Borromeo, he was coldly received by the multitude. Deeply affected with this change from the universal transports of his accession, the Pope hastened to adopt some measures calculated to restore his popularity; and on the following day a commission was issued, Nov. 8. composed of prelates and laymen, to report on the reform required in the criminal procedure, on the amelioration of the municipal system, and on the repression of vagrant mendicity. This for a time renewed his popularity, which was still farther increased by various decrees which were sonville, ii. shortly after issued for the establishment of primary Regnault, schools, agricultural institutions, hospitals for the poor, and the reorganisation of the army, and of the ancient and far-famed University of Bologna.1 Dec. 2. Dec. 11. 1 D'Haus 205, 207; iii. 309; Ann. Hist. xxix. 440, 67. which beset the Papal So far the progress of the new Pontiff had been all on flowers, but the thorns were not long in showing themselves. Difficulties He soon learned the fatal truth which experience never fails, sooner or later, to teach all who are concerned in the Governgovernment of men, that you cannot rule them by a mere ment. XLVI. 1846. CHAP. appeal to the virtuous or generous affections, but that durable authority must be based on the co-operation for their own sakes of the selfish. The holy father speedily found himself beset with a double set of retainers or applicants, the one striving to retain the offices and emoluments which had descended to them as so many appanages from the old aristocratic regime, the other to appropriate them entirely to themselves, as the heirs or expectants of the new Liberal. The persons in possession of power, for the most part, belonged to the former class. The principles which the Government professed, and which were indispensable to preserve for it its new-born popularity, were those of the latter. Hence a constant jarring between the professions of those in authority and their actions-the machine was worked by unwilling 1 D'Haus- agents. The difficulties inseparable, even in the best and sonville, ii. firmest hands, from such a transition state, were much Regnault, enhanced by the personal character of the Pope, who yielded alternately to the solicitations of these opposite parties, and deprived Government of all real consideration by taking from it all character of consistency.1 207, 209; iii. 310,311; Ann. Hist. xxix. 440, 441. The dangers of such a state of things were much enhanced in the close of 1846, by the great confluence of refugees, who, taking advantage of the amnesty, flocked to Rome, and brought with them not only the liberalism of their own country, but the concentrated spirit of revolution from all other states. The Eternal City became the headquarters of the movement from all parts of Europe. Liberals from France, Spain, Poland, Germany, the Austrian states-all flocked thither, as at once an asylum from the persecution of the Governments which they had offended, and a central point from which they could renew their machinations for ulterior and still more extensive revolutionary aggressions. No practical or useful reforms by the Papal Government could keep pace with the heated imaginations or selfish designs of this band of enthusiasts. They openly aspired, not merely to reform the Holy See, |