the wise; form and express such ideas as are great, and yet shall appear very common, and intermix no other ornament with his narration than what the modesty of truth can bear. He should be above the reach and power of hopes and fears, and all kinds of interest, that he may always dare to speak the truth, and write of all without prejudice; religiously observing never to abuse the public faith, nor to advance any thing upon common fame, which is always uncertain, but upon undoubted memoirs and faithful relations of such persons as have had a hand in affairs. He must always be upon his guard against the bias and affections of those who supply him with matter, and must not credulously give his assent to the historians that went before him, without inquiring narrowly into their character, and what influence they may have been under when they wrote, in order to make a just estimate of their weight and credit.

An historian, as to his matter, should choose subjects great in themselves, and such as are worthy of public fame and remembrance; and should make himself so far master of his matter, as to be able to cast it into what form he pleases, and to strike upon all his subjects the colours they are naturally disposed to bear, in order to make his lessons profitable to posterity, by regulating the heart and spirits of men, animating them to great and vir tuous actions by illustrious examples, and cautioning them against vice, folly, cruelty, and injustice, by laying open the fatal consequences resulting from them, The course of his narration must proceed in the order of time in which the facts happened, in a pure, grave, uninterrupted series, such as may not improperly be compared to a great river flowing with composed majesty and stately smoothness; and when it falls in his way to introduce little occurrences, they must be so artfully interwoven with the great, in the thread of the narration, as to offer a seasonable entertainment and relief to the reader, from the fatigue that too sedulous an attention to the great requireth. He must also observe great judgment in the ordinance and disposition of events and their circumstances, so as to interest the reader, and let him into all his thoughts and views, by making his persons act as their character and temper inclined them; discovering their manners, sentiments, designs, motives, and operations, as they really stand in a nenessary dependence upon each other, and with so natural a connection, as to

show nothing out of its place. His transitions, in which consists the great ar of narration, and one of its principal beauties, must be natural and easy, arising from the difference of subject rather than expression. He must make a wise and judicious choice of circumstances, such as are proper to enlarge and improve the ideas of things, and to strike that light and colour upon them, which most easily attracts belief and engages the mind; and must for that purpose always observe a due mixture of great and little circumstances, neither of which must be carried beyond nature, or be so minute, low, or frivolous, as to debase his subject. He must not only recite the bare events and actions of men, but also lay open the motives and principles from which they took their rise, and upon which they proceed. ed to their final issues. He must lay open the hearts of the actors, let his reader into the most important secrets of their councils and designs, and oblige him with a sight of those secret springs which mov. ed them to enterprises, and of the causes of their success or miscarriage. He must be very sparing and cautious in the use of descriptions, which are to be introduced so far only as they serve to illustrate things that are essential to the main subject, and to enliven the narration and even in that case they must be succinct and elegant. The frequent use of harangues are disapproved of by many judicious persons; for these long formal harangues of generals to their soldiers, when in the presence of the enemy, and ready to enter upon action, which we find in many historians, are undoubtedly not only unnatural and improbable, but contrary to the truth of history. Neverthe. less, a short speech, suited to the subject, made by a person of eminent character, has its proper beauty, and animates a narration. A judicious historian ought not to admit any portraits into his work but those of the greatest persons, and such as are principally interested, and have the chief hand in affairs; and these must be real, natural, and truly resembling their originals; expressive of their genius, the qualities of the head and heart, rather than descriptive of the external form of his personages. When such are finished with a masterly hand, with true judgment and success, they are not only great ornaments and embellishments in history, but of use to strip the hearts of men of their disguises, to lay open all their secret folds, and disclose the real springs of actions. It is a great fault in an historiographer to abound too much in reflections of his own;

:

sult, the reprobation consequent upon vice, and the glory which awaits virtue. In his days of nature, the oppressor may be applauded by the venal, whilst he lords it over his fellow men, and the wanton destroyer of the human race may be hailed as a hero by the obsequious or mistaken crowd. But when his dust is mingled with that of the victims of his cruelty and ambition, history summons him to her tribunal: she scrutinizes his deeds with impartial strictness, and passes sentence upon him according to his deserts. The prejudices and errors of time present will hereafter be done away and corrected by history, which redresses the wrongs of the injured, and treats with just contempt the insolent assumption of the undeserving. Thus, by the record of crimes, no less than by the display of illustrious examples of virtue, does history inculcate good principles, and enforce upon the reflecting mind a belief in a superintending Providence.

The early annals of all countries are considerably debased by an intermixture of fables. In fact, the first historians were universally poets, whose metaphors, amplifications, and allegories, necessarily obscured facts, or heightened them be. yond the standard of probability. To explain their legends is the province of the mythologist, whose labours, however cu rious and interesting to those who have time and inclination for such pursuits, afford very little assistance to the historian. But the mythologic age being thus consigned to the examination of those whom they may concern, however rude may be the style of ancient chronicles, or however simple and puerile the observations and reflections with which they may be interspersed, he who wishes to imbibe the true spirit of history will diligently peruse them, when they become the repositories of facts. Such documents alone will give him an idea of the genius of the times concerning which they treat. He who wishes to become acquainted with the principles and manners which predominated in France, in the reign of St. Louis or of John, will read the lively and simple, but minutely particular, narratives of Joinville and of Froissart, rather than the dull details of a Daniel, or the hasty and imperfect sketch of a Millot. In all cases, indeed, he who wishes to see past events in their true light will refer as much as possible to original authorities. The farther the stream of history flows from its source, the more it is polluted by foreign mixtures. And besides this, however skilful, or however faithful, a compiler may be, his particular views lead

him to pass unnoticed a variety of facts, which are in themselves valuable, and indeed necessary to the perfect understanding of the real nature and bearings of

events.

This maxim of having recourse to authentic documents will furnish a canon for the most profitable mode of studying ancient history. It will instruct the student to pass lightly over those periods of the Greek and Roman annals, the transactions of which were handed down by tradition to authors, who, instead of scrutinizing their credibility, have amplified and embellished them by the charms of style; and to direct his attention to the records which have been written by those who lived at the time when the actions which they commemorate took place, and more especially to the memoirs of illustrious warriors and statesmen, who have left behind them the detail of transactions in which they have been personally concerned. Guided by this principle, he will not dwell upon the marvellous tales of an Herodotus or a Quintus Curtius; but he will study with diligence the narratives of a Thucydides or a Xenophon, of a Sallust, a Cicero, a Cæsar, or a Tacitus; and whilst the legend of Curtius, as recorded by Livy, only demonstrates to him the posthu. mous glory, which, in the happier times of the Roman republic, awaited him who was ready to sacrifice his life for the good of his country, he will peruse, with more interest, the later periods of that writer's history, in which he treats of events which happened nearer to his own time, and the genuine records of which were, in all probability, furnished to him by the public offices of the state.

In regard to the earlier periods of modern history, authentic documents are scanty and obscure, and the investigator of the truth of facts is frequently obliged, as it were, to proceed with cautious steps through a dark and doubtful way; but, in process of time, they multiply to such an extent, that the student is embarrassed by their number. The archives of the different states of Europe contain vast masses of materials, which occasional liberality has opened to the curious inquirer. On the important topic of ecclesiastical proceedings, the printed reports of the decrees of councils and synods throw the most satisfactory light. Volu minous collections of treatises, which have been compiled for the benefit of after times, open the policy of different states and empires; and in various cases, those documents are themselves illustrated by the comments and memoirs of the negociators, by whom they were discussed

and finally arranged. The confidential correspondence which took place between scholars, at the revival of letters, frequently contains political details which are highly instructive and interesting. In later days, the publication of the various memoirs and state papers of ministers, to whom the conduct of the affairs of nations has been entrusted, reveal all the springs of their policy, and enable the reader of research to follow them through all the windings of the labyrinth of intrigue. The acts of the British parliament, in themselves, contain a record of the political changes which have taken place in this country, of our progress in commerce, of the gradual amelioration of our constitution, amidst the struggles of party and the contentions of faction. The recorded proceedings of our courts of law, also, supply the means of judging of the public conduct of our statesmen. It may be with truth asserted, that the perusal of the state trials can alone give an adequate idea of the horrible crimes, which, under the colour of justice, were perpetrated by the different parties which divided this kingdom in the reign of Charles II. In short, there hardly exists in any country a public office, or a private collection of papers, which does not contain documents that are calculated to throw light upon history.

The student, who wishes to pursue his historical inquiries with becoming accuracy, must make himself master of the details of geography, and of the principles of statisticial calculations; must moreover be versed in all the minutia of chro

nological researches. In the settling of dates, he will at once evince his labour and his ingenuity. For the correct arrangement of the order of events, he will not shrink from the task of poring over pedigrees, or examining coins.

It has been well observed, by the profound Pinkerton, that, by the study of medals alone, Vaillant "was enabled to ascertain, in a very grear degree, the chronology of three important kingdoms of the ancient world, namely, those of Egypt, of Syria, and of Parthia."

Such are the principal sources from which may be derived a knowledge of his toric truth. To enumerate all the materials of history would be an almost endless task; but in order to make due profit of these materials, wherever they may occur, the student ought to be animated by the spirit of philosophical inquiry. "Incredulity," says Aristotle, "is the foundation of all wisdom." Without the

gift of discrimination, the historian dege nerates into a chronicler of fables; without the faculty of deducing useful consequences, he is degraded into a registrar of barren facts. To distinguish truth" from falsehood in the obscure records of former times, or amidst the misrepresentations of factious malignity in more mo dern periods, requires no small degree of sagacity. Voltaire has justly observed, that in order to be qualified to seize the proper objects of history, a man must not be acquainted with books alone. He must have a minute knowledge of the human heart, and be qualified to analyze the prejudices and the passions of men. He will give due weight to circumstances and situations. He will not estimate the character of a despot by the panegyric of a courtier; nor will he pass sentence of condemnation on a prince, who has resisted ecclesiastical claims and restrained the power of the clergy, because he is vilified in the chronicles of a monk.

The enlightened student of history will not direct his chief attention to the frivo lous anecdotes of a court, but to the circumstances which stamp the character and decide the destiny of a nation. He will inquire what has been its radical vice or its predominant virtue; why it has been powerful or weak by sea or land; what has been the improvement or the deterioration of its trade and commerce; wherein consist the excellencies and the defects of its civil and municipal institutions; what have been the constitution, and what the influence of its ecclesiastical establishments. He will trace the introduction of arts and manufactures, and observe the changes which have taken place in manners and in laws.

Such are the materials and such the objects of history, than which, next to our relation to the deity, no more important topic of inquiry can be presented to the human intellect.

HITCH, in the sea language, is to catch hold of any thing with a hook or rope, and by this means to hold it fast: thus, when a boat is to be hoisted in, the sailors say, "Hitch the takles into the ring-bolts of the boat ;" and when they are about to weigh anchor, "Hitch the fish-hook to the fiuke of the anchor."

HIVE, in country affairs, a convenient receptacle for bees. See BEE.

HÓD, an instrument us, d to carry bricks and mortar in, up ladders, &c. to build or repair houses, &c. with.

HODMAN, an appellation given to a young student admitted into Christ's

College, in Oxford, from Westminster school.

HOE, in country affairs, a tool made like a cooper's adze, to cut upwards in gardens, fields, &c. This tool is commonly called the hand-hoe.

HOFFMANNIA, in botany, so named in memory of Maurice Hoffman, a genus of the Tetrandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of stellatæ. Rubiacea, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx four-toothed; corolla salver-shaped, four-parted; filaments none; berry two-celled, many-seeded. There is only one species, viz. H. pedunculata, a native of Jamaica.

HOG. See Sus.

Hoo, hedge. See ERINACEUS.

HOKE, day, the Tuesday after Easter week, which was the day on which the English conquered and expelled the Danes; this was therefore kept as a day of rejoicing, and a duty, called Hoke Tuesday money, was paid to the landlord, for giving his tenants and bondmen leave to celebrate it.

HOLCUS, in botany, a genus of the Polygamia Monoecia class and order. Natural order of Gramina or Grasses. Es sential character: hermaphrodite, calyx glume, one or two-flowered: corolla glume, awned; stamina three; styles two seed one : male, calyx glume, twovalved; corolla none; stamina three. There are fifteen species. One of these, the Holcus bicolor, is cultivated in some parts of the United States, for making a kind of beverage as a substitute for chocolate. The following account of this species we take from a paper written by the Professor of Botany in the University of Pennsylvania, and published by order of the Philadelphia Linnæan Society:

Some account of the Holcus Bicolor, read to the Philadelphia Linnean Society, by the president, Professor Barton.

During a late visit to Lancastsr, I learned that the German inhabitants of the Manor, in the county of Lancaster, near the Susquehanna, cultivated a plant, from the seeds of which they made a kind of beverage, resembling, in colour, taste, and nutritious qualities, common chocolate. The first accounts I had of this beverage were received from Dr. Eberle, and William Barton, esquire, of Lancas

ter.

The latter informed me, he had drank it once or twice, and that a member of his family had breakfasted on it, supposing it to be chocolate, without perceiving the deception.

From the information I received, respecting the stature, growth, and habit, of the plant, I supposed that it was a species of Sorghum. Learning, however, that a quantity of the plant was growing in a neighbouring garden, I procured a few specimens of it, together with a quantity of the seeds, then sufficiently ripe for use. I found the plant belonging to the genus Holcus, but having no books with me by which I could ascertain the precise spe. cies, I brought the specimens to Philadelphia, and after carefully comparing them with the descriptions of the different spe cies of Holcus in Willdenow's work, I find that it is the Holcus bicolor of that author, and was known to Linnæus.-(Vide Mantissa, 301.)

The generic character of Holcus, ac-cording to the Gen. Plant. is as follows:Holcus. HERMAPH. Cal. Gluma 1-sive 2flora. Cor. Gluma sub apice aristata. Stam. 3. Styli 2. Sem. 1.

MASCULI. Cal. Gluma 2-valvis. Cor. O-s. 2-valvis. Stam. 3.

And, according to Pursh:

HOLCUS. Cal. 2-valvis. Cor. minor: valv. altera aristata. Nectar. 2-partitum. Pelygamum.

Linnæus, Willdenow, Muhlenberg, and others, have thrown the genus Holcus into Polygamia Monacia; but Michaux and Pursh have referred it to Triandria Digy nia, where it truly belongs, and also to Jussieu's "Gramineæ."

The following is Willdenow's description of that species of Holcus, which is the subject of this paper:

Holcus bicolor.

H. glumis glabris nigris, seminibus globosis albis aristatis. Man. 301.

H. glumis glabris; Hort. Cliffort. 468.

H. (Sorghum) panicula coarctata ovali erecta, locustis hermaphroditis obovatis, pene glabris, subaristatis. Mieg. Act. helv. tom 8. p. 129. t. 4. f. 4.

Milium arundinaceum, subrotundo semine, sorgho nominatum. Bauhin. pin. 26. Morris. hist. 3. p. 196, s. 8. t. 5. f. 7.

Habitat in Persia. D. Lerche. O. H. V. Zweyfarbiges Pferdegras W.

Similimus Holco Sorgho, distinctissimus calycibus atris et seminibus niveis.

The method of making the beverage, which has a real or a fancied resemblance to chocolate, is this:-The seeds, which are farinaceous, together with the glumes, or, as they are commonly called, husks, which are persistent and black-are ground in a common coffee-mill, into grains somewhat smaller than ground coffee. This coarse farina is then Boiled over a slow fire, with the addition of a suffici