Washington Washington Jersey, followed by the brilliant victory hasty southward march, besieged Yorkat Trenton on Christmas night, 1776, town with a force of about 15,000 men, and the subsequent victory at Princeton, and on October 19 forced Cornwallis to on January 3, 1777. These successes surrender his forts and his force of 7000 greatly revived the spirits of the Ameri- veterans. It was the most important cans, which had been much depressed by event of the war, since it brought it to the preceding ill fortune, but Washington a rapid close, the discouraged British had still many difficulties to contend with government giving up the struggle. in the lack of recruits, the want of Throughout this contest, Washington money and war materials, and the supe- was obviously the strongest and ablest riority of his foes in all military req- man in the field, quiet, energetic, capauisites. Their one lack lay in their ble, rarely losing his temper, quick to commanders, among whom Cornwallis take advantage of every opportunity, reswas the only able soldier. In military olute in endurance, bearing the attacks genius none of them compared with Wash- of his enemies, the lack of resources, the ington, and he did not fail to take ad- continued difficulties which surrounded vantage of their weakness and ineffi- him, with the spirit of a hero and the ciency. The next movements of the en- composure of a philosopher, and triumphemy were Burgoyne's disastrous march ing in the end as such men must trisouthward from Canada and Howe's ex- umph, through an innate force of charac pedition against Philadelphia by way of ter that never yields to defeat. WashChesapeake Bay. Washington's army ington has since been regarded as a milwas defeated by superior forces at the itary genius of a high type, not a dazzling Brandywine, the British occupied Phila- meteor of war like Alexander or Napodelphia, and their alert opponent soon leon, but a leader capable of obtaining after attacked them at Germantown, los- great results by the wise handling of ing the battle mainly through the con- slender means. A patriot in grain, whose fusion caused by a fog. But the loss in only desire was the independence of his this quarter was recompensed by the de- country, he vigorously rejected the defeat and capture of Burgoyne's army at mand of his followers that he should Saratoga, and Washington's army went make himself a king, and retired to his into winter quarters at Valley Forge home at Mount Vernon, taking up with with reviving hope from the cheering composure and relief his old pursuit of news from the North. The winter was a agriculture. severe one and the men at Valley Forge He was not permitted to remain in suffered greatly from want of clothing seclusion. Confusion and inefficiency and other necessaries. The spirit of their reigned supreme in governmental relagreat leader, however, remained unbroken, tions and the necessity of a stronger govand when the tidings of the alliance with ernment became daily more manifest. In France and the danger of the Delaware the events that followed, leading to the being closed by a French fleet caused the calling of the Constitutional Convention British to evacuate Philadelphia, Washing- of 1787, Washington took an active part, ton was quickly on their track, attacked and he was chosen president of the conthem at Monmouth, and probably would vention which, in the short space of a have given them a crushing defeat but few months, devised the admirable Confor the misconduct of one of his subor- stitution which has since formed the dinates. The following winter was passed basis of government of the United States. by the American army at Morristown, Unanimously elected the first president New Jersey, and in 1780 the war was of the new Union, he accepted it, as he transferred to the South, the weakness said, with more diffidence and reluc and destitution of Washington's army tance than ever I experienced before in obliging him to remain on the defensive, my life.' The mental characteristics though closely watching the movements which make a man a great soldier are of the enemy in and about New York. usually not those that fit him to be a The climax came in 1781, when Lord constitutional governor, but Washington's Cornwallis injudiciously moved his army judgment, good sense and moderation to Yorktown, Virginia, fortified that adapted him very well to his new duties, place and awaited reinforcements from and he dealt with the difficulties that New York. The alert American com- surrounded him in his new position with mander took instant advantage of the a wisdom that few of his associates opportunity. He had been reinforced by manifested. Reëlected in 1792, he rea French army, a French fleet had e tered Chesapeake Bay and cut off Co wallis' communication with New York, and Washington at once set out on a luctantly resumed the duties which removed him from the private life that appealed more to his disposition, especially in view of the fact that he was Washington Court House Watch assailed by political foes as virulently as Washington Monument, he had formerly been by military foes. at On the 7th of December, 1796, he for a magnificent monument erected the last time met the Houses of Con- Washington, D. C. by the American peogress, and made to them a dignified ple in honor of George Washington. It Farewell Address, so full of wise advice stands in the Mall, a public park exthat it has since been regarded as one of tending to the Potomac, and is 555 fee! the great state papers of the country. high and 55 feet, 11 inches square at Declining a third term in office, he re- base, tapering upward to 34 feet, 54 tired again to Mount Vernon, but in inches square. It is built of blocks of 1798 his services were once more de- marble two feet thick, and has a stairmanded by his countrymen. A naval way and an elevator in its interior, the conflict had arisen between France and States having contributed richly carved the United States, there was danger of stones for the decoration of its interior a declaration of war, and a small army walls. The corner-stone was laid in was raised, of which Washington was 1848 and the work finished Dec. 6, 1884. appointed commander-in-chief. Fortu- Washita (wosh'i-ta), a river of Ar nately no war followed and the home life of the venerated chief was not again disturbed. He died after a short illness, kansas and Louisiana, an affluent of Red River; length, 600 miles; valuable for navigation. due to acute laryngitis, at Mount Ver- Wasp (wosp), the common name ap non, on December 14, 1799. plied to insects of various genHistory presents us with few characters era belonging chiefly to the family so worthy of our admiration and esteem Vespidæ, order Hymenoptera. Those as George Washington. His mental best known belong to the genus Vespa, gifts were not of the dazzling kind nor and live in societies, composed of fewere his talents of the brilliant order, males, males, and neuters or workers. yet he possessed the essentials of wisdom The females and neuters are armed with in a high degree, his powers and traits an extremely powerful and venomous of character being so finely proportioned sting, especially so in the Hornet. and adjusted and so firmly controlled by a heroic will and high moral faculty, Waste Products, Utilization of. as to enable him to withstand alike dis- In the process of manufacture much subaster and obloquy, to reject the prompt- stance is useless for the purpose inings of ambition, and to pursue the even tended and vast quantities of material tenor of his way unmoved by but one have in the past been thrown aside as aspiration, to promote the happiness, 6 'waste.' Within later times much of prosperity and good government of his this material has been found useful for country. The equipoise and harmony of other purposes, being at times more his powers, his keen foresight and rare valuable than the original product. This judgment, led to that wise discrimination utilization of waste has proceeded to which is the outcome alike of well de- such an extent that comparatively little veloped mental and moral faculties. material is now discarded as useless. Washington merited the noble title of 'Father of his Country.' Washington Court House, a city, county seat of Fayette Co,. Ohio, on Paint Creek, 75 miles E. N. E. of Cincinnati. It has a poultry packing house, and manufactures of stoves, furniture, shoes, fertilizers, etc. Pop. 8000. Thus waste silk' is now valuable, though it retains this name. Rags of all kinds are now so much in demand that no one speaks of them as waste. Much heat was wasted in the past which is now made useful. The vast heaps of waste coal dust at the mines are now being converted into burnable briquets and utilized in other ways, and the Washington and Lee Univer- refuse of old smelting works is being sity, made to yield metal by improved processes. The science of chemistry has done much in utilizing refuse, coal tar, for instance, now yielding a multitude of useful products. The saving effected by this utilization is too varied to be further particularized, and the saving amounts to vast sums. Watch (woch), a well-known pocket instrument for measuring time, invented at Nürnberg in the end of the fifteenth century. The wheels in watches Watch are Water the are urged on by the force of a spiral of compensation (which see) in the spring, generally of steel, contained in balance, have combined to give to the a cylindrical barrel or box, to which one best chronometers of to-day a uniformity end of a chain is fixed, the chain also of rate which it is probably impossible excel. A number of watches for also conmaking several turns round the barrel to performances outside; the other end of the chain is special Such are the calendar watch, fixed to the bottom of a cone with a structed. spiral groove cut on it, known as the the repeater, the chronograph (which etc. Large quantities of fusee (which see). On the bottom of see), the fusee the first or great wheel is put. cheaper class of watches are now made the United States, The barrel-arbor is so fixed in the frame by machinery in that it cannot turn when the fusee is Switzerland, France, Germany, and Engwinding up. The inner end of the land. They are generally produced on spring hooks on to the barrel-arbor, the the interchangeable system, that is, if If the any part of a watch has become unfit outer to the inside of the barrel. fusee is turned round in the proper for service, it can be cheaply replaced direction it will take on the chain, and by an exact duplicate, the labor of the consequently take it off from the barrel. watch repairer thus becoming easy and This coils up the spring; and if the expeditious. fusee and great wheel are left to them- Watch (nautical), a certain part of the officers and crew of a vesselves, the force exerted by the spring in the barrel to unroll itself will make sel who together work her for an althe barrel turn in a contrary direction lotted time, the time being also called This a watch. The time called a watch is to that by which it was bent up. force communicating itself to the wheels four hours, the reckoning beginning at or midnight. Between 4 and 8 will set them in motion. Their time noon P. M. the time is divided into two short of continuing in motion will depend on the number of turns of the spiral groove or dog-watches, in order to prevent the on the fusee, the number of teeth in constant recurrence of the same portion the first or great wheel, and on the of the crew keeping the watch during number of leaves in the pinion upon the same hours. which the great wheel acts, etc. The Water (wa'ter), a liquid which cov necessity of keeping the watch from ers the greater part of the It was classified among running down,' and of making the earth's surface. wheels move with uniform motion, gave the elements until the close of the eightrise to the use of the balance-wheel and eenth century, when Lavoisier, profiting hair-spring (taking the place of the by the experiments of Cavendish, proved pendulum of a clock) and the variously it to be a compound of hydrogen and and ingeniously designed mechanism, the oxygen, in the proportion of two volumes escapement (which see). On the per- of the former gas to one volume of the fection of the escapement the time- latter; or by weight 2 parts of hydrogen keeping qualities of a watch largely de- to 16 parts of oxygen; hence its chemical pend. Of the many varieties invented formula is H2O. Pure water is a colorand perfected, watches are now almost less, tasteless, inodorous liquid; a powerthe ful refractor of light; a bad conductor exclusively provided with either and electricity; it is very horizontal, the lever, the chronometer of heat or the detached escapement. (See Chro- slightly compressible, its absolute diminnometer.) In all but the best class ution for a pressure of one atmosphere of modern watches the fusee has been being only about 51.3 millionths of its abandoned in favor of the going-barrel. bulk. Although water is colorless in The latter offers better facilities for small quantities, it is blue like the keyless work, and keyless watches are atmosphere when viewed in mass. manufactured in great quantities. The takes a solid form, that of ice or snow, going-barrel watch can also be produced at 32° F. (0° C.), and all lower temat a cheaper rate, and for ordinary pur- peratures; and it takes the form of poses is amply reliable. The main- vapor or steam at 212° F. (100° C.) spring in this class of watch is very under a pressure of 29.9 ins. of mercury, form at all higher long, but only a few coils are brought and retains that Under ordinary condiinto action. The great wheel is at temperatures. tached to the going-barrel itself, thus tions water possesses the liquid form the spring force is directly transmitted only at temperatures lying between 32° to the escapement. The invention of the and 212°. It is, however, possible to spiral hair-spring by Dr. Hooke (about cool water very considerably below 32° 1658), the scientific application of its F. and yet maintain it in the liquid properties since, and the intelligent use form. Water may also be heated, under It Water pressure, many degrees above 212° F. without passing into the state of steam. The specific gravity of water is 1 at 39.2° F., being the unit to which the specific gravities of all solids and liquids are referred, as a convenient standard, on account of the facility with which it is obtained in a pure state; one cubic inch of water at 62° F. and 29.9 inches barometrical pressure, weighs 252.458 Water a chemical point of view water exhibits in itself neither acid nor basic proper ties: but it combines with both acids and bases, forming hydrates; it also combines with neutral salts. Water also enters, as a liquid, into a peculiar kind of combination with the greater number of all known substances. Of all liquids water is the most powerful and general solvent, and on this important property its chemical use depends. Without water not only the operations of the chemist but the processes of animal and vegetable life would come to a stand. In consequence of the great solvent power of water it is never found pure in nature. Even in rain-water, which is the purest, there are always traces of carbonic acid, ammonia, and sea-salt. Where the rain-water has filtered through rocks and soils, and reappears as spring or river water, it is always more or less charged with salts derived from the earth, such as sea-salt, gypsum, and chalk. When the procortion of these is small the water is called soft, when larger it is called hard water. The former dissolves scap better, and is therefore preferred for washing; the latter is often pleasanter to drink. Some springs contain а considerable quantity of foreign ingredients, which impart to the water particular proper ties. They are known under the general term mineral waters, and according to the predominating constituents heid in solution are divided into carbonated waters (alkaline, magnesian, calcareous, and chalybeate), sulphatic waters (containing chiefly sulphates), chlorinated waters (containing chiefly chlorides), and sulphuretted waters (containing large quantities of sulphides or of sulphuretted hydrogen). The only way to obtain perfectly pure water is to distil it, but matter simply held in suspension may be got rid of by suitable filtration. The great reservoirs of water on the globe are the oceans, seas, and lakes, which cover more than three-fifths of its surface, and from which it is raised by evaporation, and, uniting with the air in the state of vapor, is wafted over the earth ready to be precipitated grains. Distilled water is 815 times in the form of rain, snow, or hail, and heavier than atmospheric air. Water is make its way by river channels to the sea. at its greatest density at 39.2° F. Water, like air, is absolutely necessary (4° C), and in this respect it pre- to life, and healthy human life requires sents a singular exception to the general that it should be free from contaminalaw of expansion by heat. If water at tion, hence an ample and pure water 39.2° F. be cooled, it expands as it supply is considered as one of the first cools till reduced to 32°, when it solidi- laws of sanitation. In addition to the fies; and if water at 39.2° F. be heated, abundant surface pressure of water, it it expands as the temperature increases penetrates the rock crest of the earth in accordance with the general law. In fo considerable depths and he its sol Tank and Pump House. |