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Emerson's Essay on Beauty A Class Study in Literature, by the same Editor. Tales from the Fairie By CLARA L. THOMSON, Examiner in English Literature to the Central Welsh Board. Copiously Illustrated by HELEN STRATTON. PRICE HALF-A-CROWN. THE NORLAND PRESS, SHALDON, SOUTH DEVON. The School World No. 49. B A Monthly Magazine of Educational Work and Progress. JANUARY, 1903. PSYCHOLOGIST AND TEACHER. By C. LLOYD MORGAN, F.R.S. EFORE we ask what is the relation of teacher to psychologist, let us enquire what are the aims of the one and of the other. The aim of the psychologist is to study and formulate the laws and conditions of mental development, or, in other words, to interpret and explain the orderly growth of that body of experience which is effective in thought and conduct. The aim of the teacher is to afford to his pupils the conditions most favourable to their mental development, or, in other words, to minister to the orderly growth of that body of experience which is to be effective in thought and conduct. Now, at first sight, it would seem that, since both psychologist and teacher are dealing with mental development-both with the orderly growth of experience their relations must be exceedingly close; that the practice of the one must necessarily be founded on the laws which have been formulated by the other. It would even seem, and is sometimes boldly contended, that the teacher is dependent on the psychologist for the principles on which the art of education is based. But, if we desire to approach the subject in the spirit rather of a judge than of an advocate, there are several considerations which tend to show that the dependence of educational procedure on the results of psychological method is not so close and direct as extremists strive to maintain. In the first place, many able and eminently successful teachers, and among them the greatest, have had no psychological training; they have remained, either from lack of opportunity or from want of inclination, wholly outside the sphere of influence of a scientific treatment of mental phenomena. In the second place, there are others, not less successful, who have diligently sought inspiration from psychological text-books, and have sought in vain. In the third place, we have not the data which would warrant the assertion that the man who is among other things a trained psychologist is also and for that reason a more skilful and sympathetic No. 49, VOL. 5.] SIXPENCE. teacher than he would otherwise have been. It may be so; but from the nature of the case we cannot, from a judicial point of view, say more than this, even if we can confidently affirm so much. Furthermore, it does not necessarily follow, that because both psychologist and teacher have to deal with mental development and the orderly growth of experience, the analytic procedure of the one is of essential value to the synthetic methods of the other. Nay, rather, observation has not improbably forced upon our notice the fact that the analyist is frequently apt to dwell so exclusively in the plane of his analysis as to lose touch with the broader and more synthetic aspects of the phenomena with which he deals. Not he who can most exhaustively unravel the diverse factors. which co-operate in the attainment of some form of skill-say, in playing billiards-is necessarily himself the most skilful player. Nor is the man who is most deeply versed in the science of acoustics a better musician than Handel or Beethoven. The fact that the teacher, as artist, deals with the self-same mental development which the psychologist, as man of science, endeavours to explain cannot be regarded as in itself sufficient ground for the assertion that the procedure of the one must be dependent on the principles elaborated by the other. Indeed, it may be urged that the constructive methods of art are so divergent from the analytical methods of science that it is unreasonable to hope for helpful and fruitful interaction between them. And yet I am firmly convinced that there may be helpful and fruitful interaction between psychologist and teacher if they will but approach each other in a spirit of mutual sympathy and with a genuine desire to render assistance where their spheres of work inter-penetrate. The teacher who is worth his salt has a keen insight into character, knows well what his pupils can assimilate, appreciates by a subtle sense he can scarcely, if at all, define, the difference, not only in mental capacity, but in mental process, between the boy of seven and the lad of seventeen; he has quite definite and clear notions as to the manner in which, and the conditions under which, valid and serviceable experience is built into the tissue and fibre of B mental muscle and has learnt the relative values of the firm flesh and sinew of hard-won knowledge and the accumulated fat of merely second-hand information. All this is just what the psychologist endeavours to explain; it is an aspect of mental development he has, with all the assistance he can get, to grasp in its entirety prior to his analysis. He has, therefore, much to learn through the sympathetic help of the teacher. On the other hand, all his analysis has for its final end and aim a fuller and more complete understanding of the broader and more general trend of the same mental development. And although the analysis he deems necessary to attain this end may often seem to the teacher too subtle and too detailed for educational purposes, yet the constructive synthesis must, in so far as it is valid and true to nature, be of service to the teacher, just as the results of scientific botany are of value to the practical horticulturist. If this be so, it is the synthetic rather than the analytic side of the psychologist's work which will most strongly appeal to the teacher. And this is the aspect of psychology in which many textbooks are deficient; so that the teacher who turns to them for inspiration is lost in a maze of detail of which he fails to see the purpose and end. There is some analogy-an analogy sufficiently close to be of use for purposes of illustrationbetween the relations of teacher and psychologist on the one hand and those of naturalist and morphologist and physiologist on the other hand. The naturalist is a close observer of the lifehistories of animals and plants in their free and open-air surroundings. He studies them as wholes and is often impatient of the minuter work of some of his scientific friends in the examination of organs and tissues and microscopic details. But he often has a wonderful insight into the ways of animals and the habit of plants, and the relationships they bear to each other. In his field of work, if the work be good, he is eminently practical and relies on the results of experience. He gets hold, perhaps, of a text-book on zoology or botany, written, maybe, to meet the requirements of a London Degree Syllabus; and he finds little or nothing therein to help him in his work in the field. He is like the teacher who knows by practical experience the relation of boys to each other and to him in the educational field and who turns to the text-book of psychology with hopeful expectation, only to replace it on the shelf with disappointment. But if the naturalist perseveres in his study of the works of zoologists and botanists, he finds that one result of their labours is what is now termed bionomics, which is essentially a return to the broader and more synthetic aspect of the study of animals and plants with the deeper insight begotten of close and patient analysis. And he finds that the meaning of many relationships with which he was already familiar in a general way has been deepened and rendered clearer. He starts, for example, with a good observational knowledge of pond life, and has not much opinion of those who make a minute study of processes of respiration; he reads and assimilates Professor Miall's delightful work on the "Natural History of Aquatic Insects," he finds that the modifications of respiration have, after all, a distinct bearing on his own study; he is led to observe himself on these lines, and realises that some at least of the more minute work of the zoologist is eminently serviceable to him as naturalist. So, too, I conceive the teacher, as observer of the natural history of mental development, may, if he pursues his study of psychological bionomics, come to realise that it is in very truth a return to the broader and more synthetic aspect of the study of mental development with a deeper insight begotten of close and patient analysis; and that as such it has a real and fruitful bearing on the principles which underlie the practice of his profession. It will, however, probably be asked how teachers can most readily obtain the kind of training in psychology which will be most helpful to them in their daily work. The question is not easy to answer, partly perhaps because the problem has not yet been adequately solved. Taking first the case of teachers in training and assuming that they attend classes in psychology, the first thing, I take it, is to develop what may be termed the psychological attitude. Every piece of experience, such as that developed in an object lesson properly conducted with due regard to individual observation and manipulation, has its objective and its subjective aspect. We naturally tend to dwell especially on the former aspect-the properties of the things which are being examined-and to pay little heed to the mental processes which are involved in their apprehension. But for both psychologist and teacher these mental processes are of the greatest importance. Discussions on the heuristic method for example, and those on reform in mathematical teaching, involve considerations of the manner in which mental assimilation can be most effectually secured. The scientific investigator as such can afford to take for granted the manner in which experience is gained, inferences are drawn, and a body of related knowledge developed, the results rather than the psychological steps by which they are reached being in the foreground of his attention. But neither psychologist nor teacher can afford to do so. The one tries to explain, the other endeavours to establish the conditions of such development. Now what should be the guiding principle of the relations of the psychological lecturer to teachers in training? That the examples of mental process-what we may term the subject-lessons of psychology-should be drawn from the practice of the class-room. The stages of the genetic process should be so far as possible made clear. Memory, rising from simple reinstatement through recognition and remembrance to systematic recollection; attention, passive and active; the process of assimilation, the developmental steps by which logical inference is reached, the growth of imagination, the successive stadia of active behaviour, instinctive or quasi-instinctive voluntary and volitional and their emotional ac companiments, should be treated by means of comparison of the procedure of children and adults. And then the general principles thus reached should be applied to the disciplines of the curriculum. Take, for example, a lesson in grammar or the analysis of sentences. The sentence describes certain relationships in the external world-what are they and how are they apprehended? What are the relationships in thought corresponding to those of the words in the sentence? How have the verbal relationships come to be symbolic of the natural relationships? Are we dealing with percepts or concepts? Are there any inferences involved and of what type are they? Is the sentence descriptive or explanatory? And so forth. Or take some simple physical research (actually demonstrated before the class), say with Atwood's machine. How do we pass from particular observations to general conceptions? How can we symbolise the results in a plotted curve? What does the curve mean, and what connections in thought are involved? How, for example, do space relations in the curve stand for acceleration and so forth in the experiments? What is the meaning of interpolation in the curve, and what is its relation to the process of inference? What is the nature of verification, and how does the coincidence of results, reached by different methods of observation and inference, beget that mental state we term conviction? Or, take a lesson in history. How are the time relationships implied in dates related to those in the experience of our own lives? How far and at what stage does the child get anything like a definite notion of time scale? How far can the teaching of history be made anything better than the imparting of a body of more or less vague information? At what stage of mental development does the historic imagination cause the events to stand out in dramatic form? Or, again, in a series of lessons in astronomical physiographysay the demonstration that, if physical principles obtain throughout the universe, the earth-moon and the earth-sun systems rotate around their common centres of mass-what faculties are we endeavouring to train? What part does imagination play in such studies, and what is the relation of conception to imagination? These are but samples of the kind of discussion in which the psychologist and his class may take part. For much more can be done (when preliminary questions of definition have been settled) by free interchange of opinion than by set lectures and textbook work. It is more difficult to suggest what course should be adopted by those teachers, already in the practice of their profession, who are desirous of seeking such aid in their daily avocations as can be given by psychology. But where any number are banded together in an association those who are interested in the matter might read some standard text-book and meet from time to time to discuss those portions which are in closest touch with school studies. If they can secure the services of some psychologist of standing who is interested in the kind of applications of the subject which bear on class-room methods, who is acquainted with the problems which present themselves to teachers, and who has paid special attention to the comparative psychology of children and adults, these discussions are likely to be more fruitful. But above all it should be remembered that the school is a specialised psychological laboratory, and that it is the problems which there present themselves as matters of practical experience which should form the basis of discussion. “TH TWO VIEWS OF CULTURE. I. By JOHN SARGEAUNT, M.A. Westminster School. HE mental equipment of a cultured man is in part an outcome of his education. It is not the only, not even the chief outcome; but I am not now to speak either of moral and physical qualities or of that which merely fits a man for his particular calling. On what is left it must always be remembered that πολυμαθίη νόον οὐ Sidάoke, knowledge is not wisdom, and that our theme is but the prelude of the strain, & de μabeîv. We, moreover, must make two distinctions. We must distinguish what is in itself ideal and immutable from the changing forms in which the ideal is represented by different generations, and we must distinguish in the individual that which is immediately evident, as shewing itself in the form of assimilated knowledge, from that which the vulgar cannot put to so ready a test, the power of thought and the appreciation of beauty, the æsthetic sense. Of unassimilated knowledge there is no need to say anything: it has been condemned once for all in Bentley's epigram on Warburton, "a huge appetite and no digestion." A third distinction may suggest itself. Goethe, said a fine critic, had his source in a great movement of thought, Byron his in a great movement of feeling. For our present purpose, however, feeling is only so far to be considered as it is dominated by thought. The forms of Attic The two great faculties of the mind are reason and imagination. In training these faculties education has certain instruments, which are, in the first place, nothing more than instruments, even though in individual cases they take their place in the store of learning. Obvious examples are grammar and geometry. verbs and the pons asinorum are taught not because a man must needs have them, but because they are definite, because they train the reason and strengthen the memory, because they do a work which, at present at any rate, is beyond the power of such subjects as history or natural science. Take an example. A boy of eighteen, who has a taste for mathematics and has been trained in them, will cram within a few weeks enough chemistry to deceive the Civil Service examiners. Reverse the process and observe the failure. Of the type of instrument, as a training in logic, are riders in Euclid, and what are called in schools 66 unseens." Now all these instruments go to the making of a man of culture, but it does not follow that they remain as a visible part of his equipment. Their matter may be in part or altogether forgotten, but they have, none the less, had their effect. We can do no more than allude to the many other qualities, such as readiness, observation, the capacity for receiving ideas, and the lasting freshness of the mind, which should have their training in schools and are blent with such moral qualities as industry, humility, and enthusiasm. The loftiest mind of the seventeenth century found the perfectly educated man in him who is fit "to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices both private and public of peace and war." We can no longer even profess to aim at Milton's ideal. Such an aim would defeat itself. Nor is the scope of our argument the whole field of education. We have rather to consider what the man of culture must know. Much as the modern world has been affected by the Hebrews, still it is true that our culture is based upon the thought and art of the Greeks. It does not follow that a man of culture must needs know their tongue or tongues. No modern can know Greek completely, no modern can wholly bridge the gulf-novies Styx interfusa coercet-which separates us from Greek life. Through translation and other helps he who has no Greek may get a creditable acquaintance with the spirit of this ancient world. Yet he will lose something directly, and much more in that subtle power which the phrase and the word refuse to transfer to an alien speech. Plato in English can be better understood than enjoyed; the mannerisms of Attic tragedy are apt to grow grotesque under transplantation, and no English version can keep the grandeur of Homer or of Thucydides. The greater the author the more impossible is translation. Look at Shakespeare in a French dress. The translator may imitate the cry of Dryden's Cleopatra: Up, up, my friend, and rouse the serpent's fury. He is powerless before Shakespeare's Poor venomous fool, Be angry and despatch. Recent discoveries have stirred a new interest in Greek archaeology, but it must not be forgotten that archaeology has little worth except so far as it illustrates thought whether of literature or of art. Scholarship must ever be the mistress, and archaeology her handmaid. Above all, in their philosophy the Greeks shewed themselves to be the people that has been "most industrious after wisdom." It cannot be denied that some men of great attainments have been incapable of studying metaphysics. To Macaulay much of Plato was a sealed book, and when he found that a translation of Kant conveyed no meaning to his mind he somewhat pettishly threw the blame upon the "Liverpool merchant" who The fault was in had Englished the German. himself, and despite his great gifts it makes some of his work inadequate, if not futile. Indeed, the study of history cannot be properly divorced from the study of speculative philosophy. History may, it is true, be regarded as a series of events, a record of stirring actions, of wisdom and folly, of heroism and crime, and as such it has its value in early education; but such a view will not carry us far. "All the epoch-forming revolutions of the Christian world," said Coleridge," the revolutions of religion and with them the civil, social, and domestic habits of the nations concerned, have coincided with the rise and fall of metaphysical systems." We must look to the philosophy of history, to its bearing on morals, to its power to teach us our own nature. Only in this light is it true that history repeats itself, only by so studying the past can we gain a forward glimpse τῶν μελλόντων ποτε αὖθις κατὰ τὸ ἀνθρώπειον τοιούτων καὶ παραπλησίων ἔσεσθαι, of the working of human nature in the circumstances that are to be. So Hegel well said that the philosophy of history was the supreme end of philosophy. Even For And what, then, of the disagreements among historians? They differ not only in the truth and the interpretation of this or that fact, not only on the thought and the spirit of this or that age, but on the whole philosophy of human life. Hegel's disciples sometimes come to conclusions that might well astonish their master. instance, one of them discovers a support, nay, the chief support, of freedom and progress in the Society of Jesus. When glasses can be so coloured, we cannot hope that all men will see alike. Yet we need not on that account cry out, with Walpole, "No history, for that I know must be false." But we must bring to the study of history a sense of evidence, of proportion, of the meaning of great movements, of events as a record of the thoughts of man. Above all, we must bring that elevation of mind without which all learning is but a tinkling cymbal. From the science of history we cannot separate the science of politics or the science of law. History is the politics of the past, and law is the established and recorded witness of the ideals of an age. On a lower plane stands political economy, an exact science, even if it has not in all points attained to its own exactness. Like geometry, it deals with inevitable consequences. You can no more break its laws than you can break the law of gravity. It tells you, for instance, that one course leads to prosperity and its opposite to adversity. It cannot compel you, it is not its business to advise you, to take either. The law of gravity cannot prevent a lunatic from throwing himself off the Monument, but he knows what will happen if he does. We are not done with the Greeks when we turn to criticism in literature and art, for its ultimate principles must be sought from philosophy. Here, however, we can, if we choose, take an easier course. A sound critical faculty may be obtained from an intelligent study of the best models. Such |