motion in producing it being similar to the child's natural action of scribbling, only brought within control. These round shapes of various sizes are added to, and placed in juxtaposition, in such a manner as to form strings of beads or patterns. This is the commencement, and by careful grading, "masses' are made to grow into many shapes without any thought of outline. Later, outlines are firmly added to these shapes, in order more carefully to define them. Lastly, in Standard I., the preparatory" massing" as an aid to "outline" is dropped, and pure "outline" takes its place. This brings the child to the real commencement of drawing.

The results of this free-arm method are most gratifying, and the children themselves thoroughly enjoy the work. It does away at one sweep with all minute eye-straining pencilling on squares, and supplies a more truly Froebelian substitute, bringing into play boldness and freedom. In the case of infants, straight lines are only introduced by degrees. Actual straight-lined work is done separately as ruler-practice, worked from the beginning on plain white paper.

Young children should not be expected to draw straight lines by hand very perfectly. In Standards I., II., and III., the brown-paper free-arm practice is continued. As As many natural forms and common objects are selected for examples as possible. Geometrical shapes are reserved for ruler-work. In Standard I., broadly, the year's work is based on long straight lines combined with arc curves to form shapes and patterns. In Standard II., the O or elliptical curve (done in one sweep) is introduced, and is combined with straight lines to form shapes and patterns. Standard III. deals with the compound or double-curve applied to natural and ornamental forms, and the children are initiated into the laws of growth, exhaustion, repetition, and radiation. In many schools the free-arm practices are repeated to a smaller scale on white paper as freehand practices. In others, suitable mass forms are represented in clay or with the brush, which are really only other ways of "massing."

Above Standard III., free-arm, freehand, and model are practised, and pen and brush work introduced by degrees. All ordinary lessons, such as geography, composition, and science subjects, are whenever possible, illustrated by little pen or pencil sketches in the margins of the paper or exercise. Geometry and scalework, pattern designing, the tinting of patterns and scale drawings, are also included in all the complete elementary courses: although in girls' schools of all grades the drawing course is necessarily less exacting, with a minimum of mechanical work. In many schools short blackboard practices are undertaken in addition to all other drawing, even in the infants' departments. Such practice is generally on the lines suggested by Professor Liberty Tadd, and is useful for gaining facility. As "gymnastics" may aid "dancing," so this big work imparts certainty of touch, versatility, and leads to fertility of invention, but does not on this account constitute

a

66

"drawing scheme." Memory drawing" is periodically practised in all classes. In the top classes only, as a rule, are clay-work and painting taken up, as time and opportunity will allow. The same remark applies to the drawing and shading of casts, designing, stencilling, and other more advanced subjects. Never less than two hours per week are given to these exercises, and four are found to be ample. It must be borne in mind, however, that above all things, the pencil work of these classes has to be good (done either by the free-arm or freehand method at option), and it is advisable that pen-drawing as encouraged in the new Government syllabus should be taken up more generally than it is.

Several excellent sets of drawing charts are to be had from well-known publishers at about 25. or 3s. net per set for each class above Standard III., say for children of nine and ten upwards. Perhaps the four that are most famous and useful just now are:-Bacon's "Grey Line Series (extremely practical), Waddington and Jackman's "Grey Line Series" (Wilkinson), Nelson's "New Drawing Course" by J. Vaughan (Director of Drawing, Glasgow School Board), and the admirable "Leicester School Board Course" (C. R. Robins, Leicester).

Is it surprising that, from amongst elementary pupils so trained, art masters all over the country are anxious to recruit their school-of-art students, with the promise of full support from the Board of Education in such efforts at co-ordination?" But where," it may be asked, "do the secondary schools come in, if this be the case?"

The secondary schools come in and occupy a most important place in the training of pupils between the ages of fourteen and eighteen The higher elementary-schools are, after all, but few in number, and but touch the fringe of the work. The field, and it is a broad one, is in possession of the secondary schools.

Therefore, with proper previous training, pupils in secondary schools should be able to produce very passable advanced drawing, and be able to qualify in the Society of Arts examinations, School of Commerce examinations, Oxford and Cambridge Locals, and South Kensington examinations. The art schools and technical schools ought also to be able to count on a large number of qualified candidates from these schools.

Hence the subjects to be taught (according to circumstances and requirements) might be enumerated as follows:-Advanced freehand with pencil, pen, or brush; advanced model, lightly shaded; shading of casts and objects with chalks, stumps, pen, or sepia; simple sketches of the human features or figure, of trees and landscapes from good examples; simple designing and colouring; a little still-life; modelling in clay or wax; penand-ink drawing for illustration; a little woodcarving; some stencilling; geometrical drawing and perspective; mechanical drawing for machine or building construction; blackboard drawing; a slight knowledge of architecture and architectural mouldings, and of the general history of art.

Cupboards, desks, racks, can be obtained from either :-The London School Furniture Co., Messrs. Chapman and Hall, or Messrs. Geo. Hammer and Co. Obtain estimates.

Blackboard (42 in. long), and Easel, about 17s. 6d. Chapman and Hall.

Chairs, 3s. 9d. to 6s. each. Chapman and Hall.

Desks, London School Furniture Co., or Chapman and Hall. (Mr. Fisher's Combination Art Table, 30s. each; very good.) An art room is far better without desks at all; they encumber the floor space and are heavy for moving about. The small light "Englefield Easel" (plain deal, 5s. each) is to be recommended instead. Twenty-five required with chairs, and drawing boards.

Other Easels, say 3 deal, 6 ft. high, 9s. each, and 3 School of Art easels, 10s. 6d. each. Reeves and Sons. Or the "Hatherly," 8., Messrs. Winsor and Newton, is very steady.

Two Stools for Models, with adjustable top and background, about 18s. each. London School Furniture Co.

Picture Frames with movable backs, imperial, about 5s. 6d. ; half imperial, about 3s. 6d. Chapman and Hall, or from C. Jacobs.

Twelve Stands for Casts (upright). H. Boneau.

Complete set of S.K. Models in box, £4. Chapman and Hall. Additional various models can be obtained from same firm, and from The Educational Supply Association, at from 35. to 5s. each.

Drawing Boards, 25 half imperial, at about 2s. each; 12 imperial, at about 4s. each. Reeves and Sons.

Materials for General Purposes.

Millboards, brown paper (several sizes), cartridge paper, blotting paper, Canson paper, Michallet paper, Saunders and Whatman's paper. Apply to Strong and Hanbury, or Reeves

and Sons.

For Colour Work, &c.

Pencils, crayons, chalks, stumps, indiarubbers, &c., from Messrs. Lechertier, Barbe & Co., Reeves and Sons, or Rowney's. Water-colour tin boxes (at 2s. 6d. each), refills, palettes, bottles and wire trays for same, indian-ink, ebony-stain, &c. Messrs. Reeves and Sons. Send for Reeves' booklet on Brush Drawing.

Compasses and mathematical instruments. (Chapman and Hall). T-squares and set squares. Reeves and Sons (for geometry).

Teachers' large T-squares, set squares and compasses. Set, 21s. 6d. Chapman and Hall (for geometry). Teachers' coloured chalks. Messrs. Rowney and Co.

For Clay Modelling (Class of 10).

Two Bins for Clay. From local builder or contractor. Can be zinc-lined boxes or fixed slate-sided receptacles, having sloping

Patterns and Miss Rowe's books on Wood and Chip-carving, from the Manager, School of Art Wood-Carving, South Kensington, S.W.

Set of wood-carving plaster casts, Nos. 408-419, Chapman and Hall's catalogue, at £2 10s (set).

Tools from J. B. Addis, Tottenham Court Road; or R. Melhuish, 84, Fetter Lane, Holborn Circus. Wood and Boards from Mr. Newson, 61, Pimlico Road, London, or from local dealer.

Photographs for Drawing Purposes.

From NATURE (plants, &c.). Set at 2s. 6d. "The Arts Co.," Derby. Or from the Welsh Educational Publishing Co., Merthyr-Tydvil, an excellent set of nature-study drawing cards, at 4s. net (box of 20); these are actual pressed specimens. From ORNAMENT. Selections from Kerry's admirable sets, at 6d. each photograph. Also "The Arts Co." set at 2s. 6d. Casts (not including human figure).

Elementaries. From Brucciani's catalogue :

Set

Studies of ornament, 2315.-Set of 10 at 2s. 6d. each. for 1: Nos. I and 9 good. Studies of ornament, 2584.-Set of 15 at 2s. 6d. each. Set for £110s.: Nos. 3, 5, 10, 11, 15, good.

An egg, 2811, at 2s. Very useful. Group of eggs, 2813, at 5s. Very useful. 5 balls, 2814, at 3s. Very useful. Elementaries (from Chapman and Hall's illustrated catalogue, price 2s. net. (This catalogue is most useful) :—

New Century Casts, Nos. 12, 13, 17, 18 (5s. each). Could be used instead of one of Brucciani's elementary set quoted above. For Advanced Shading. Nos. 448 (2s. 6d.), 449 (2s.), 451 (25.), and from the New Century Casts, Nos. 1, 3 and 5 (12s. 6d. each); and 333A (5s.).

For Acanthus Ornament. Steven's spandril, 331 (4s. 6d.).

For Shading and Clay Modelling. Nos. 14 (5s. 6d.), 17 (4s.), 56-59 (3s. or 3s. 6d. each), 382 (3s. 6d.), 384 (3s. 6d.), 393, 394, 397 (4s. 6d.), 398 (4s. 6d.), 426 (9s.), 427 (2s. 6d.), 436, 437, 438, 439 (2s. 6d. each), 454 (4s. 6d.), 455 (2s.). These can all be recommended, and selections can be made from them by help of the illustrated catalogue.

Some Books of Reference.

Packet of Card - copies for Elementary Chalk Drawing. (Charles and Dible.) 2s. net.

"Chalk Drawing on Brown Paper," in book form. (Charles and Dible.) 3s. net.

"Free-Arm and Ambidextrous Drawing-Book," by Frank Steeley. (G. W. Bacon and Co.) Just out.

"Brush-Work Drawing Copies," by Frank Steeley. (G. W. Bacon and Co.) Just out.

"Elementary Art Teaching," by E. R. Taylor. (Chapman and Hall.) IOS. 6d.

"Plane Geometry," by J. Carroll. (Burns and Oates. Is. 6d.

"New Art Geometry," by Steeley and Trotman. (Bacon and Co.) 25.

TH

HERE has been a constantly increasing tendency of late years to add to the interest and consequent effectiveness of almost all the lessons of the school course by the introduction, wherever possible, of some form of illustration, which, by appealing to the eye, makes it an auxiliary of the ear in the reception of the facts sought to be laid down or deduced by the teacher. The illustration of lessons may be provided for in any one of four different ways. The most effective illustration is, of course, the production of the actual object under discussion in the lesson, and, where this is possible, it should in all cases be resorted to. But a very good substitute for the actual object is frequently supplied in the beautifully-reproduced wall charts that are so much used in kindergarten and lower school departments. These effectively illustrate objects that are not accessible to the schoolroom, such as the larger animals, forest trees, tropical plants, manufacturing processes, and sections of coal mines, or of rock

strata.

A third kind of illustration is the carefully prepared sketch on a blackboard, not reproduced in. the presence of the class, but drawn out by the teacher before the lesson commences. There is very little justification for this form of illustration, as, though considerable pains may have been taken

with this sketch, it is not likely to be so effective as the coloured wall-sheets, while it lacks the interest of the fourth kind of illustration, the blackboard sketch proper, executed during the course of the lesson in the presence of the pupils. In this latter case even a very crude sketch, if rapidly drawn, will stimulate the interest of the children, who like to see the drawing developed before their eyes. There is little doubt that this last method of illustration is not more resorted to because of the distrust of the teacher in his own artistic capabilities. This diffidence arises from a lack of appreciation of what a blackboard sketch should be, and of the standard of artistic judgment that will be brought to bear on the sketch by the onlooking class.

To deal with this latter point first. An exami nation of the sketches made by children for their own amusement reveals the fact that they give first importance to an exaggerated expression of the most obvious features of the object illustrated, and though this becomes to a certain extent modified in the work of older pupils, its continued presence affords a clue to the best means of fixing their attention to the point it is desirable to emphasise. In a blackboard sketch, then, all unnecessary detail should be left out, a simplicity of outline should be aimed at, and the important points may be with advantage exaggerated. The main object to be kept in view should be that, as the sketch is to illustrate some point in a lesson, and is to be drawn when this point arises, only a very simple drawing, that will not delay the course of the lesson, can possibly be allowed, and the sketch becomes a mere note on the blackboard, taking its place with the verbal notes, and forming a part of the summary of the lesson that should appear on the board when the lesson is concluded.

The first stage in a course of practice towards becoming efficient in this subject should take the form of free-arm" exercises. The student should stand in front of the board, so that, when the arm is extended straight from the shoulder, the chalk just rests on the middle of the board opposite. Now if the wrist and elbow be kept comparatively rigid, by means of two sweeps, one from the top to the left downwards, and the other from the same starting point to the right downwards, an almost perfect circle will be struck, even by a novice, the arm acting almost as the arm of a compass, and the shoulder joint being the pivot. By approaching nearer, a larger circle will be struck, and by receding the area of the circle will be diminished. When the circle has been placed in as suggested, even though it is not perfectly round at first, com mence from the top and let the hand rotate the complete circumference several times in each di rection. The series of overlapping lines will ap proximate to a perfect circle, the defect of one revolution rarely falling in the same place a that of the second revolution, so that a thick lin will have finally covered in the several defects in the complete sketch.

The chalk to be used for this and subsequen exercises should not exceed an inch-and-a-half i

In

length, as it will be found in practice that the shorter the chalk the greater command one has over it, and the firmer the line it will produce. And here we may note the difference between drawing on paper and on the blackboard. making a sketch on paper the difficulty of erasing mistakes leads us at first to make our sketch very lightly, but with the chalk and blackboard we shall find it just as easy to clean out a firmly drawn line as one that is lightly sketched in. And as firm lines are necessary for sketches to be seen by all the class, and no time is available for lining in, it is as well at the beginning to draw everything in with a firm line. The exceptions to this rule will arise in the more advanced work, as, for instance, in the drawing of a flower or leaf, where the general shape being faintly indicated the petals or leaflets may be firmly inserted, and then it is not necessary to rub out the construction lines. Just as in ordinary drawing the constant reliance on the indiarubber militates against accuracy in our first attempts, so in blackboard drawing, if we wish to get confidence, which is the essence of good work, the duster must be almost entirely discarded. This may be more readily done because a slight thickening of the outline in various places will generally obliterate slight inaccuracies without detracting from the value of the sketch.

Having practised the circle both singly and in combinations, such as several concentric circles, three circles in a larger one, or an interlacing series forming rope or guilloche ornament, next proceed to the ellipse. The difficulty is in this case increased because the diameters are not equal, but the same sweeping swing of the arm should be retained, though at first it may be necessary to set out lightly the two diameters at right angles. Repeat the exercise of running the chalk rapidly round the complete circumference several times, until the swing of the arm becomes quite easy and automatic.

The oval naturally succeeds the ellipse as an exercise, and then such familiar objects as egg and egg cup, acorn, cherry, apple, and plum, which are based on these forms, may be attempted. In all cases stand in front of the board, not to one side, as the latter position induces an irregularity in the sketch, due to the difficulties of the perspective. The enlargement of freehand copies from printed examples will follow, but too much importance should not be given to absolute symmetry, as this latter quality is rarely present in objects other than purely conventional forms.

Our next exercises should be devoted to practice in proportion and the drawing of straight lines. Draw a square without measuring, and when completed test its accuracy by measuring not only the sides but also the diagonals. A square placed with its diagonals vertical and horizontal on the board will be found more difficult; and then proceed to an oblong with length twice breadth, to an equilateral triangle, and to a regular pentagon. This latter is important as the basis of many floral

forms.

Text-books dealing with this branch of the work

are "New Methods in Education," by Liberty Tadd; and "Ambidextrous and Free-arm Blackboard Drawing," by F. F. Lydon; both published by Sampson Low, Marston and Co.

So far our practice will have been mainly devoted to the cultivation of confidence and freedom in the use of the chalk. We now approach the second and more interesting branch of our work, the illustration of plant and animal forms as required in the teaching of nature-study. Here the chief feature of our work will be the memorising of natural forms and the observation of the construction. Let any student who has not previously attempted it try to draw from memory a butterfly, a cowslip, or even a leaf, such as the horse chestnut. It will be found in most cases that, though all these objects are perfectly familiar, an exact impression of their form has not been noted with sufficient care to enable one to make even a passable representation. But a very little practice in sketching from the actual object, especially if those of allied form be classified, will soon develop the power to seize on the characteristics of the object it is desired to repre

sent.

A start should be made with leaf-forms, the ivy, the virginia creeper, and the horse chestnut being grouped, as all falling in the general outline of a pentagon with ribs radiating to the corners from above the middle of one side. In this case first lightly indicate the pentagon.

Next put in the ribs of the stalk, and mark the eyelets between the leaflets or the deep serrations between the lobes. A firmly drawn outline will then obviate the necessity of rubbing out the construction lines. The tiny serrations at the edges of some leaves should be only slightly indicated here and there, as a repetition of all that would appear in the natural leaf will give a hard and mechanical effect, besides necessitating too long a time in the execution.

The shape of flowers is most generally a circle with radiating petals, though we get a square form in the wallflower and the clematis, and pentagonal in a number of cases.

The relative thickness of the stalk must be noted, as the character of the stalk-delicate and twisted as in the poppy, or lush and firm-growing as in the Christmas rose-will affect the apparent texture of the petals, in the one case making them appear to be light and silky, and in the other firm and fleshy, though the general outline may in both cases be the same. In order to facilitate the memorising of natural forms a note-book should be kept, and details dotted down as opportunity arises, classification of similar forms, and notifications of variations from type, being a great help to memory drawing.

It may be noted in regard to natural forms that in no case is a strict regularity observed, the two sides of a leaf, or the two leaves of a plant, never being identically alike. Where this variation is overlooked we get a conventional form which always lacks some of the interest of nature, though it is frequently preferable as an illustration of a type.

There are a number of works dealing with this branch of the subject, combining the nature lessons with blackboard illustrations, and these are useful to the student as showing how much may be left out without destroying the value of the sketch.

The third section of this subject deals with the representation of artificial forms based on the geometric models-the cylinder, cone, pyramid and prism. In depicting these forms a knowledge of the principles of model drawing is necessary. Thus, before we can correctly portray a bottle, a cup and saucer, or a vase form, it is necessary to have mastered the principles that in a cylinder the long diameter of the ellipse will be at right angles to the axis, and the more remote end will be represented as smaller but rounder than the nearer end.

The most effective way to study this branch of the subject, which will be applicable to all mechanical, architectural, and in fact all artificial forms, is first to study carefully the geometric models, and then to sketch out objects based on them. Thus the cube should be set up and sketched in various positions, the convergence of the receding lines and the relative foreshortening being noted, and then boxes, chairs, and other cubical objects may be first drawn from the objects, and afterwards from memory. Objects of simple form, with their outline not obliterated by ornamental detail, should be chosen, and in making the blackboard sketch the object should be

the model with the fewest possible number of lines. The triangular prism will give us the basis for a hen-coop, a tent, or a pair of steps, and so on through all the geometric forms. This section is more difficult than the preceding because a structural accuracy is necessary, or the representation looks weak even to the untrained eye.

Another point in connection with this part of the subject is that, if correct memory sketches of common objects are to be made, it is necessary to note the material and function of the object depicted

Let us take, for example, the teapot. The spout of a silver teapot will be much thinner than that of one made of delft. The bore or pouring capacity of both being the same, the comparative thinness of the metal, as compared with the thickness of the crockery, will give the difference in the outside appearance of the two objects. Again, the spout of a teapot, coffee-pot, or watering-can, made of tin, will of necessity be straight because of the difficulty of bending tin in more than one direction at once. The spout of each of these objects must also come up to the level of the top of the vessel, or it would be obviously impossible to fill the vessel with water. Such considerations as these will go to the representation of the object in such a manner that it appears to be in proportion and fitted to fulfil its functions.

From these remarks it will be seen that, in order to depict even simple objects successfully from memory, not only is it necessary to have obtained a facility in the use of the chalk, which everyone has who can write on the blackboard, but a quickness of observation, a retentive memory, and above all, an appreciation of construction and function.

must be cultivated and constantly practised. Among books dealing with this branch of the subject are "Model and Blackboard Drawing," by F. F. Lydon, and "How to Draw from Models," by W. E. Sparkes.

Artistic ability has throughout been ignored because, although there will always be some who can draw better than others, just as some can write better than others, still it is possible for everyone by practice and care to acquire the small amount of facility necessary to make a successful sketch in illustration of our lessons. Such a power, thus obtained, adds a new interest to the lesson, and a new bond of sympathy betwee teacher and pupil.

N the three articles of which the present is the first, it is proposed to deal with School Furniture of secondary schools for girls of the present day, and to write chiefly of furniture of which I have had personal experience.

I assume that the class room is properly lighted, warmed, and ventilated. The walls should be tinted or papered with some pale colour, without pattern of any kind. The shade should be restful and such as will give a satisfactory background for the few good pictures which should be in every class-room. I have found a shade of grey-green one of the most decorative and serviceable. A dado of polished wood is a distinct advantage, unless the desks can be kept quite away from the walls, which is not always possible. The floors of the class rooms should be of close-grained, light, polished, but not too highly polished, wood; or, where a school is established, as is so often the case, in a dwelling house adapted to school purposes, covered with linoleum. The old-fashioned plan of scrubbed boards is not satisfactory. This kind of flooring involves considerable outlay for cleaning, as the rooms should be washed at least once a week, and, from a sanitary point of view, the risk of damp floors is considerable. Polished floors are not often kept in good order in England, but are ideal when well laid and well kept. Linoleum is more easily kept in order, and all dust can be quickly removed with a damp flannel. The initial outlay for this floor covering for a large building is heavy, but this is soon saved by reduced cleaning