nishing another very strong corroborative test of the age of manuscripts we subjoin, that in 1483 he pawned it for 208. ; in 1485, for 168.; in which illuminations occur; nor, interesting though it be, can we treat 1488, for 268. 8d.; in 1510, for 208., and again for 168. 8d., and it must of the purely artistic portion of the subject, as our present object is be remembered that these sums cannot be supposed at the most to solely the palæographic portion of the inquiry. We will, therefore, represent more than a moiety of the worth of the manuscript : “ Cautio at once sum up brietly, and in a manner easily remembered, the great domini Johannis Corke, excepta in cista de Gylford, A.D. 1483,5 die Maii, lines of demarcation which separate the different epochs. This we will et jacet pro 208. Renovatur cautio hec 24 Januarii, A.D. 1485, et jacet do, taking the centuries in triplets.

pro 168. Cautio M. J. Corke, A.D. 1488, in cista de Wagon et Hosy, et Of the first three centuries we can say nothing. In the 4th, 5th, habet unum supplementum, et est Albertus de Naturis 2o. fo. illorum, and 6th we find little ornamentation beyond the rubricated or gilded et jacet pro 268. 8d. Renovatur hec cautio per manus Magistri letters of the actual text. The 7th, 8th, and 9th, witnessed the Johannis Corke, A.D. 1510, 22 die mensis May, et nunc jacet pro 208. perfection and adoption of the Hibernian style. The 10th, 11th, and Item eodem die renovatur per manus ejusdem magistri Corke et nuno 12th, the introduction and use of architectural forms. The 13th, 14th, jacet pro 168. 8d." These entries specifying the sums lent upon and 15th, the growth of foliage under carefully studied natural laws; manuscripts, sometimes for the accommodation of the possessor, and the 13th century being the age of the bud, the 14th of the leaf, the sometimes apparently as security for safe return when borrowed for 15th of the flower; and in the miniatures, the 13th the age of gold, purposes of study or transcription, are highly curious. the 14th, of diaper, the 15th the commencement of realistic painting. PALÆSTRA (Talaiotpa), which properly means a school for Of the next century we need say little, as manuscripts formed no longer wrestling (Talaleu, " to wrestle,” and train, wrestling”), was used the bulk of literature, but were mere costly appendages of luxury and in several different significations. The word first occurs in Herodotus taste.

(vi. 126, 128), who informs us that Clisthenes built at Sicyon a dromos The broad outlines we have here given are off course open to many and palæstra, both of which he calls by the general name of gymnasia. exceptions, as the artists of different countries worked under different At Athens, however, it appears probable that the palæstræ and influences; indeed, to Italian works they can hardly be said to apply gymnasia were distinct places, and that the former were appro at all, as that nation infused a new life of its own into the Byzantine priated to the gymnastic exercises of the boys and youths (raides and style in a more gradual manner than the sudden and independent meipákia), while the latter were intended for those of the men ; it is changes of the western nations.

certain, however, that the boys also exercised in the gymnasia. These Throughout the whole of the dark and middle ages the value palæstræ were called by the names either of their founders or of the attached to the possession of manuscripts, and the activity shown in teachers of the gymnastic exercises (Taidorpißai). We accordingly multiplying them, are very remarkable. Silvestre tells us that long read in Plato of the palæstra of Taureas, which appears to have been previous to the 12th century, the most active zeal was displayed in one of the most celebrated. (Plato, ' Charmid.,'c. i.; with Heindorf's search after ancient texts, even of profane authors. “ In the middle Note.') of the 9th, Lupus, abbot of Ferrières, earnestly requested from the In most of the other cities of Greece the palæstra formed a part of Pope and the bishops of England and Ireland, the loan of manuscripts the gymnasium. According to Müller ( Archäologie der Kunst, 5 292) of ancient writers that copies might be made of them; and in 1040, it included the otádov (stadion); eon Belov (ephebion, or exercise hall); Count Geoffrey of Anjou gave to the abbey of Notre Dame of Saintes, o paipiothplov (sphæristerion, or hall for ball-play); à Noguthrov (apody. the tithe of the hides of the deer killed in his forests, to furnish a terion, room for undressing); fraco0lotov, or å eitthplov (elæothesion, fund to bind the books of the monastery.” (Silvestre, ed. Madden, is aleipterion, room for anointing); koviothpov (konisterion, for rubbing 311.) The same writer, loc. cit., mentions also the veneration paid with dust); Kolvubhopa (columbethra, a swimming-bath); çuotol in the 15th century to the Florentine Pandects of the Laurentian (xystoi, covered walks); teplopouldés (peridromides, open walks); in library, a magnificent volume written in the 7th century, and esteemed fact, every part of the gymnasium except the outer porticoes. It the most valuable of the manuscripts of the Roman law. This appears, however, more probable that the term palæstra was confined manuscript was taken from Pisa by the Florentines in 1406, and after to the rooms which were appropriated to the exercises of the athletæ, its deposition at Florence “ was regarded with almost religious who, it must be recollected, were persons who were especially trained veneration, being shown only to the highest personages, with great for contending in the public games, and therefore needed a course of ceremony, in the presence of the chief magistrate, accompanied by gymnastic exercises different from that which was usually pursued. monks, bareheaded, and bearing lighted tapers."

That this view of the subject is correct, is shown by the statement The price of manuscripts in the middle ages is a subject full of Pausanias, who informs us (vi. 21, s. 2), that in the gymnasium at interest, the data for determining which, although existing scattered Olympia there were palæstræ for the athletæ, and also by that of throughout various manuscripts, has never been properly collected or Plutarch, who says (Symp.,' ii., Probl

. 4) “ that the place in which all discussed. A recent writer (Mr. Digby Wyatt, Art of Illuminating') the athletæ exercise is called a palæstra." furnishes "a most interesting contemporary illustration of the precise Among the Romans the terms palæstra and gymnasium are used as terms upon which noble patrons employed the best illuminators of the synonymous. Thus Vitruvius gives a description (v. 11) of a Greek day (14th century),” in the shape of an extract from the fabric rolls of gymnasium under the name of palæstra. In the Greek cities in Sicily York Minster, 1346, in which a contract seems to have been entered and Italy there also appears to have been no distinction in use between into for writing a volume containing psalter, hymnal, and collectary, the two words (Cic. in. Verr.,' ii. 14; Polyb., xv., p. 716, c. : Casaubon); ornamented with illuininated letters in gold, azure, and vermilion, whence the Romans probably came to use them in common. (Gymnafor about sixteen shillings. Such a price, however, far from in- sium.) (Krause, ‘Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen ;' Becker, dicating the cost of the works of the "best illuminators,” could only Charicles,' v. 1.) have represented a manuscript of comparatively rough and coarse PALANQUIN (sometimes written Palankcen, and Palkee), a ki of description. There is in the British Museum å 14th century bible, covered litter carried, by means of poles, upon the shoulders of men, taken by the English at the battle of Poictiers, exactly ten years which forms the principal vehicle for personal transport in Hindustan, after the date of the contract quoted above. The volume is a large and varieties of the vehicle are used in other eastern countries. In one, and contains a good many illuminated letters in addition to Hindustan the palanquin is described by Captain Basil Hall, in his some miniatures and borders of a tolerably fair, although by no means Fragments of Voyages and Travels,' third series, vol ii. chap. vi., as superior kind. This volume, the spoil of war, William Montagu, about six feet long by two and a half feet wide, and provided with conearl of Salisbury, purchased at the time for one hundred marks veniences which enable it to serve at night-time for a bed, and in tho (upwards of 621., representing about 3601. of our money), as a present day-time for a parlour. A pole is attached to each end of the palanquin, to his countess, and it was arranged that at her death it should be near the top, to carry it by. As the poles, which rest upon the shoulders sold by her executors for 401. This is recorded in a contemporary of the bearers, are not elastic like those of a sedan-chair, Captain Hall entry at the commencement of the volume, so curious in its details states that a palanquin has not the same unpleasant motion as that that we give it entire : “ Cest liure fust pris oue le Roy de Fraunce a vehicle; and Bishop Heber also, who gives an account of dâk trala bataille de Peyters, et le bon Comte de Saresbirs William Montagu velling in the Narrative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of la achata pur cent mars et le dona a sa compaigne Elizabeth la bone India,' published after his death, observes that “the motion is neither Countesse qe dieux assoile. Et est continus de dedeius le Bible enter violent nor unpleasant,” but that, being incessant, it is impossible to oue text et glose e le mestre de histoires, et incident tout en memes le draw in a palanquin, and not very convenient to read, excepting a large volym. La quele lyure la dite Countesse assigna a ces executours de print. Only four bearers can, in an ordinary palanquin, place their le vender pur xl liuers." Again, in the 15th century, a roughly shoulders beneath the poles, two at each end; but in passing over diffiexecuted volume of 219 leaves, now preserved in the British Museum, cult ground two others will occasionally bear part of the weight by and containing the Book of Wisdom with gloss, the capitals in plain thrusting a bamboo under the body of the palanquin; and in travelling blue and red, is priced at lx shillings. A further insight into the price there are two or more sets of bearers, who relieve each other by turns. of such manuscripts is gained from the very curious memoranda While walking or running with their load, the bearers, who form a occasionally met with of the price for which such books were pawned peculiar class among the Hindus, keep up an incessant noise, sometimes or set in pledge. There is a manuscript in the old royal collection, like grunting or groaning, and sometimes approaching the character of British Museum (7 E v), which was pawned by its possessor five different a song, or of wild vociferation. times, between the years 1483 and 1510, a fact showing not only the The mode of conveyance is undoubtedly ancient. A conveyance of worth of manuscripts, but how readily a money value might be this sort was used by the Egyptians, as is shown by a representation obtained for them. This manuscript is of the 14th century, roughly found at Beni Hassan. In western Asia they are usually carried by executed, and contains a treatise entitled 'Pupilla Oculi,' by John camels ; and one of a similar character is bome by an elephant, but Borough, and a sacramentary. It will be seen from the entries, which this is usually called a houduh,

6

a

PALATINE COUNTIES.

235

a

PALATINE COUNTIES. Three of the English counties, Chester, PALIMPSEST (tahmuhotos, from many again, and yow to cleanse Lancaster, and Durham are counties palatine, by prescription. The or rub) is a term applied to a manuscript, from which the original text county of Pembroke, in Wales, was also a county palatine, till the has been erased, in order to make room for a second subject; a process statute 27 Henry VIII., c. 26. The archbishop of York, previously which was accomplished by rubbing it with pumice-stone or other similar to the reign of Elizabeth, claimed to be a count palatine within his substances till the traces of the original writing disappeared, and then possessions of Hexham and Hexhamshire, in Northumberland, and is so smoothing it down with a roller or polisher. That this practice was termed in some ancient statutes; this was put an end to by the stat. adopted by the ancients, appears from a passage in Cicero's letter to the 14 Eliz., C. 13.

jurisconsult Trebatius, where he praises his friend for having been Bo Counts palatine are of feudal origin ; and a reference to their history economical as to write on a palimpsest, but says that he should like to will clearly explain the meaning of the title, and many of the incidents know what those things could have been which were considered of less of these territorial dignities. Selden says, “the name was received importance than his letter. (“Ad Familiares,' vii. 18.) Palimpsests are here doubtless out of the use of the empire of France, and in the like also mentioned by Plutarch and Catullus, but these appear to have been notions as it had in that use (“Titles of Honour,' part ii.). In the rather leaves of books, so prepared that one writing could easily be court of the ancient kings of France, before the time of Charlemagne, expunged and another substituted, and were frequently used by authors there was a high judicial officer, called the Comes Palatii, a kind of for correcting their works, as is evident from tho satire of Catullus:master of the household, whose functions nearly resembled those of the Praefectus Prætorio in the elder empire. This officer had supreme

“ Puto esse ego illi millia aut decem aut plura

Perscripta : nec sic, ut fit, in palimpsesto judicial authority in all causes that came to the king's immediate

Relata ; charta regiæ, novi libri, audience. (* Tit. of Hon.,' part ii., chap. 33.) When the seat of empire

Novi umbilici, lora rubra, membrana was transferred to France, this title and office still continued, but the

Directa plumbo, et pumice omnia æquata." normal dignity, as well as a degree of jurisdiction and power analagous

CARMEX, xxii., 1, 5 et seq. to those of the ancient functionary, were also given to a different class of persons. When the sovereign chose to confer a peculiar mark of It was not, however, till the 9th or 10th century that this practice distinction upon the holder of a certain fief or province, he expressly became at all general, and then it was more frequently resorted to by granted to him the right to exercise the same rank, power, and juris- the Latins than the Greeks. In the 11th century it appears to hare diction within his fief or province as the comes palatii exercised in the been at its height. In the 13th and 14th centuries edicts forbidding it palace. Hence he also obtained the name of comes palatii or palatinus, were issued in Germany; and it had not entirely ceased in the 15th and by virtue of this grant he enjoyed within his territory a supreme century: as Knittel, in his account of the palimpsest manuscripts in and peculiar jurisdiction, having royalties, or jura imperii, by which the Augustan library at Wolfenbüttel, tells us that in the early times he was distinguished from the ordinary comes, who had only an in- of the art printed books were sometimes worked off on vellum from ferior and dependent authority within his district or county. This was which ancient writings had been erased, and instances particularly an the origin of the distinction between the Pfalzgraf and the Graf in edition of the Clementine Constitutions, printed by Nicolas Janson in Germany, and between the count palatine and the ordinary count or 1476 upon parchinent, which had undergone this process of obliteration earl in England. Selden says that he had not observed the word to prepare it for the purpose. “palatine” thus used in England until about the reign of Henry II. The earliest observations on palimpsest manuscripts were made in

In conformity with this view, the counts palatine of England had | France, iu 1692, by M. Boivin, of the Bibliothèque du Roi, who jura regalia within their counties, subject only to the general superi- discovered beneath the Greek text of St. Ephrem, written in the 14th ority of the Crown sovereign; or, as Bracton expresses it (lib. iii. cap. 8), century, a portion of the Greek Bible, in uncial letters of the 6th “regalem habent potestatem in omnibus, salvo dominio Domino Regi century. This was followed, in 1755, by a similar discovery made by sicut principi.” They had each a Chancery and Court of Common F. A. Knittel in the Augustan library at Wolfenbüttel, of a palimpsest Pleas; they appointed their judges and magistrates and law officers; manuscript of the Origines of Isidorus, under which was a translation they pardoned treasons, murders, and felonies; all writs and judicial of the Epistle to the Romans, by Ulphilas, bishop of Gothland, who in proceedings issued and were carried on in their names; and the king's the 4th century was known to have translated the, whole of the writs were of no force within their counties. Many of these powers, Scriptures into the language of that country, and to have invented a such as the appointment of judges and magistrates and the privilege new character, consisting of letters borrowed chiefly from the Greek of pardoning, were abolished by the stat. 27 Henry VIII. c. 24, which for that purpose, but of whose labours only the four Gospels were also provided that all writs and process in counties palatine should previously known to exist in the Codex Argenteus at Upsala. In 1762, from that time bear the king's name. The statute, however, expressly Knittel published, in 4to, the greater portion of the missing volume, stipulates that writs shall be always witnessed in the name of the which, although not identical with the Codex Argenteus, as originally count palatine.

supposed, proved to be a portion of a similar manuscript. The county of Chester is a county palatine by prescription, being By far the greatest discoveries in the field of palimpsest manuscripts commonly supposed to have been first given with regal jurisdiction by were, however, made by Cardinal Mai. In his researches in the William I. to Hugb d'Avranches. (* Tit. of Hon., part ii.) It was Ambrosian library at Milan, of which he was keeper, he discovered annexed to the crown, by letters patent, in the reign of Henry III., several fragments of Cicero's orations; these comprised the orations and since that time it has always given the title of Earl of Chester to against Clodius and Curio, that ‘De Ære alieno Milonis,' not prethe eldest son of the sovereign, being preserved in the crown as a viously known, and the oration 'De Rege Ptolemæo. These treasures county palatine when there is no Prince of Wales.

had lain concealed for centuries under a Latin translation of the Acts Lancaster appears to have been first made county palatine by of the Council of Chalcedon, and were adjudged by the discoverer to Edward III., who, in the twenty-fifth year of his reign, in his patent of belong to the 4th century. In another manuscript he detected several creation of Henry, the first duke, granted him the dignity of a count fragments of the orations of Symmachus, who had previously been palatine, and afterwards, in the fiftieth year of his reign, granted the known only from his epistles; and the whole of the comedies of same dignity by letters patent to his son John, Duke of Lancaster. Plautus, including a fragment of the 'Vidularia,' a lost comedy, of Henry IV. was Duke of Lancaster, by inheritance from his father which all that previously existed were twenty lines, preserved by John of Gaunt, at the time of his usurpation; but he avoided the Priscian and Nonius. union of the duchy with the crown by procuring an act of parliament, Being promoted to the librarianship of the Vatican, he discovered in which declared that the duchy of Lancaster should remain with him that library the treatise of Cicero, 'De Republica, of which nothing and his heirs for ever, in the same manner as if he had never been had been known, in modern times, beyond the fragments preserved in king of England. Upon the attainder of his grandson Henry VI., soon the writings of Macrobius, Lactantius, Augustin, Nonius, and others. after the accession of Edward IV., the duchy became forfeited to the This priceless manuscript came from the celebrated Abbey of St. crown, and an act of parliament passed to incorporate the county Columbanus, in Bobio, in the Milanese territory, having been pur. palatine with the duchy of Lancaster, and to vest the whole in chased by Pius V., who appears to have been acquainted with its value Edward IV. and his heirs, kings of England, for ever. Another act of as a palimpsest; yet no attempt was made to decipher it till two and a parliament passed in the reign of Henry VII., confirming the duchy to half centuries later, when Cardinal Mai brought out his famous edition the king and his heirs for ever; and from that time to the present it at Rome in 1821. This manuscript, which contains 300 pages, is in has continually been united to the crown.

double columns, each consisting of fifteen lines. The writing is in fine, Durham, like Chester, is a county palatine by prescription ; but it is large, Roman uncials, the words not divided. It is clearly one of the probable that the palatine jurisdiction did not exist long, if at all, earliest palimpsest MSS. yet discovered, and is referred by Cardinal before the Norman Conquest. (Surtee's' History of Durham,' Introd., Mai to the 2nd or 3rd century of our era. Above the treatise was a p. 15.) “There is colour to think,” says Selden (" Tit. of Hon.,' part ii. copy of St. Augustine's Commentary on the Psalms, in a handwriting c. 8)," that the palatine jurisdiction began then in Bishop Walcher, earlier than that of the 10th century. whom king William I. made both episcopus and dux provinciæ, that These researches of Cardinal Mai gave a new zest to the study of he might frænare rebellionem gentis gladio, et reformare mores eloquio, palimpsest writings, and shortly after Niebuhr examined several of the as William of Malmesbury says," Durham continued as a county manuscripts in the library of the chapter at Verona, one of which was palatine in the hands of a subject till 1836, the bishop being prince discovered by him to contain a palimpsest of some ancient jurisconsult

, palatine, and possessing jura regalia. By stat. 6 & 7 Will. IV., c. 19, which he suggested to be the Institutions of Gaius, a conjecture which palatine jurisdiction was transferred to the crown, subject to certain was verified by the Berlin Academy of Sciences, under whose auspices restrictions which have been removed by later statutes.

the first edition of this work appeared in 1820, scarcely a ninth of the PALI. [SANscRIT LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.]

whole book having been found illegible. This palimpsest is more par

.

6

in honour of Pan Lupercus, the protector of the flocks against wolves. According to Servius (note to Virgil's Eclogues,' ii. 31) Pan was also considered as the god of Nature, a personification of the universe, the word pan (wav), in Greek, meaning "all," or "the whole," but this was a late notion.

one of the most splendid of the ancient works of art, is in the British
Museum. [ELGIN MARBLES.]
A full and detailed account of this festival is given by Meursius, in
a work on the subject, which is printed in the seventh volume of the
'Thesaurus' of Gronovius.
PANCAKE, a thin cake of batter fried or baked in a pan. The
annual custom of frying pancakes (in turning or tossing which in the
pan there was usually a good deal of pleasantry in the kitchen) is still
retained in many families throughout the kingdom on Shrove Tuesday,
and was formerly universal. The church bell which used to be rung
on that day, to call the people together, in Roman Catholic times, for
the purpose of confessing their sins, or shriving themselves, was called
the pancake-bell, a name which it long retained.

According to Brand ('Popular Antiq.'), a kind of pancake feast
have borrowed it, and pancakes are eaten at any time, though more
generally on Shrove Tuesday. The Russes, Hakluyt says, begin their
Lent always eight weeks before Easter. The first week they eat eggs,
milk, cheese, and butter, and make great cheer with pancakes and
such other things.
PANCHA-TANTRA. [PILPAY, in BIOG. DIV.]
PANDECT. [JUSTINIAN'S LEGISLATION.]
PANDUS. [MAHABHARATA.]

PANATHENÆA (Пava@vaia), the greatest of the Athenian festivals, was celebrated in honour of Athena (Minerva) as the guardian deity of the city ('Aohn woλiás). It is said to have been instituted by Ericthonius, son of Hephaestus (Harpocrat., Пaval.), and to have been called originally Athenæa ('Anvaia); but it obtained the name of Panathenæa in the time of Theseus, in consequence of his uniting into one state the different independent states into which Attica had been previously divided. (Paus., viii., 2, s. 1; Plut., 'Thes.,' c. 20; Thucyd., ii. 15.) There were two Athenian festivals, which had the name of Pana-preceding Lent was used in the Greek Church, from whence we probably thenæa: one of which was called the Great Panathenæa (ueyάλa Пava@nvaιa), which was celebrated once in every five years with very great magnificence, and attracted spectators from all parts of Greece; and the other, the Less Panathenæa (uiкpá Пava@hvala), which was celebrated every year in the Piræus. (Harpocrat., loc. cit.; Plato, 'De Rep.,' i. 1.) When the Greek writers speak simply of the festival of the Panathenæa, it is sometimes difficult to determine which of the two is alluded to; but when the Panathanæa is spoken of by itself, and there is nothing in the context to mark the contrary, the presumption is that the Great Panathenæa is meant; and it is thus spoken of by Herodotus (v. 56) and Demosthenes (De Fals. Leg.,' p. 394). The Great Panathenæa was celebrated on the 28th day of Hecatombæon (Proclus, quoted by Clinton, Fast. Hell.,' p. 325), the first of the Athenian months, which agrees with the account of Demosthenes (C. Timocr.,' p. 708, 709), who places it after the 12th day of the month. There is considerable dispute as to the time in which the Less Panathenæa was celebrated. Meursius places its celebration in Thargelion, the eleventh of the Athenian months; but Petitus and Corsini, in Hecatombæon. Mr. Clinton, who has examined the subject at considerable length (Fast. Hell.,' p. 332-335), supports the opinion of Meursius; and it does not appear improbable that the Less Panathenæa was celebrated in the same month as the Great, and was perhaps omitted in the year in which the great festival occurred. The celebration of the Great Panathenæa only lasted one day in the time of Hipparchus (Thucyd., vi. 56); but it was continued in later times for several days.

At both of the Panathenæa there were gymnastic games (Pind., 'Isthm.,' iv. 42; Pollux, viii. 93), among which the torch-race seems to have been very popular. There were also chariot and horse races. In the time of Socrates, there was introduced at the Less Panathenæa a torch-race on horseback. (Plato, 'De Rep.,' i. 1.) At the Great Panathenæa there was also a musical contest, and a recitation of the Homeric poems by rhapsodists. (Lycurg., C. Leocr.,' p. 209.) The victors in these contests were rewarded with vessels of sacred oil. ('Pind., ' Nem.,' x. 64, and Scholia; Schol. on 'Soph. Oed. Col.,' 698.) The most celebrated part however of the Great Panathenaic festival was the solemn procession (Toμm), in which the Peplus (Пéπλos) or sacred robe of Athena was carried through the Ceramicus and other principal parts of the city to the Parthenon, and suspended before the statue of the goddess within. This Peplus was covered with embroidery (Tonixuaтa, Plato, 'Euthyph.,' c. 6), on which was represented the Battle of the Gods and the Giants, especially the exploits of Zeus and Athena (Plato, loc. cit.; Eurip., Hecub.,' 468), and also the achievements of the heroes in the Attic mythology, whence Aristophanes speaks of "men worthy of this land and of the Peplus." ('Equit., 564.) The embroidery was worked by young virgins of the noblest families in Athens (called épyaorîvai), of whom two were superintendents, with the name of Arrephora. When the festival was celebrated, the Peplus was brought down from the Acropolis, where it had been worked, and was suspended like a sail upon a ship (Paus., xxix. 1, s. 1), which was then drawn through the principal parts of the city. The procession which accompanied it consisted of persons of all ages and both sexes, of foreigners resident at Athens as well as of citizens. The old men carried olive branches in their hands, whence they were called Thallophori (@aλλopópoi), and the young men appeared with arms in their hands, at least in the time of Hipparchus. (Thucyd., vi. 56.) The young women carried baskets on their heads, whence they were called Canephori (κavnoópo). The sacrifices were very numerous on this occasion. During the supremaoy of Athens every subject state had to furnish an ox for the festival. (Schol. on Aristoph. 'Nub..' 385.) It was a season of general joy; even prisoners were accustomed to be liberated, that they might take part in the general rejoicing. (Schol. on Demosth. Timocr.,' 184.) After the battle of Marathon, it was usual for the herald at the Great Panathenaa to pray for the good of the Plateans as well as of the Athenians. (Herod., vi. 111.) The procession, which has been described above, formed the subject of the bas-reliefs which embellished the outside of the temple of the Parthenon, which are generally known by the name of the Panathenaic frieze. The blocks of marble of which this frieze was originally composed, were 3 feet 4 inches high, and they formed a connected series of 524 feet in length. A considerable portion of this frieze, which is

ARTS AND SCI. DIV. VOL. VI.

PANEGYRIC (from the Greek' panegyricus,' waνnyuρikos λóyos) is a species of oration in praise of a person or thing, so called because such discourses used to be delivered in ancient Greece on the occasion of great public festivals before the whole assembly, "panégyris," of the people. Afterwards the name came to be applied to political orations delivered in the senate or council of a state in praise of that state or of the leading men or man in it. The panegyrical oration of Isocrates is a fine specimen of the kind, in which he commemorates the glories of Athens, the services which it had rendered to Greece in general, and the whole with a view to nourish friendly feelings between it and the other Greek states.

Under the Roman empire panegyrics were composed in praise of the emperors, Pliny's panegyric of Trajan is a well known specimen of this kind. Panegyrics became frequent under the late emperors, both of the East and the West, in Greek and in Latin; they are mostly however written in a fulsome and adulatory style. We have panegyrics of Constantine, Constantius, Justinian, Theodosius, and others, which, if consulted with discrimination, may be useful for historical purposes and for supplying deficiencies in the historians of those times. Eunodius, bishop of Pavia, wrote a panegyric in praise of Theodoric.

Panegyrics have also been written in verse. The poem of Tibullus in praise of Messala is a specimen of this kind, as well as similar compositions by Claudianus, Sidonius, and others.

In modern times panegyrics have been written by Roman Catholic preachers in honour of particular saints. Giordani, an Italian contemporary author, wrote a panegyric in praise of Napoleon, in imitation of that of Pliny. But the panegyrical style seems no longer in accordance with the taste of our age, and its essential character is too laudatory to please minds of an independent cast. The éloges on deceased members of the Académie Française are perhaps the only existing examples of the old panegyric.

PANEL. This term in English law denotes a small schedule of paper or parchment containing the names of the jurors returned by the sheriff for the trial of issues in courts of common law. The enrolment of the names upon this schedule is the array. The etymology of the term is doubtful; Sir Edward Coke says, "Panel is an English word, and signifieth a little part, for a pane is a part, and a panel is a little part' (Co. Litt., 158 b). Spelinan derives the word from pagella, a little page, supposing the g to be changed to n. (Spelman's Gloss.,' tit. "Panella "). Both these etymologies seem to be incorrect. In the old book called 'Les Termes de la Ley,' panel is said to come from the French word panne, a skin; whence in barbarous Latin might come panellus or panella, signifying a little skin of parchment. This would denote the jury panel pretty accurately, and the history of its appearance as an expression in English procedure is consistent with its derivation from the French.

In the earliest records of the forms of jury-process, as given by Glanville, it appears that the sheriff was commanded by the writs in certain real actions to cause to be imbreviated (imbreviari facere) the names of the jurors by whom the land in question was viewed. But at this time the word panel never occurs, nor is it used by Bracton, Fleta, or Britton, nor in any statute earlier than 20 Edw. III., c. 6 (1349), which forbids sheriffs from putting suspected persons in arrays of panels. This was precisely the period at which the French language began to be fully introdnced into our law proceedings. (Luder's 'Tract on the Use of the French Languge in our Ancient Laws.') In Scotch criminal law, the accused, who is called a defender till his appearance to answer a charge, is afterwards styled the pannel. The etymology of this word also is doubtful. (Jameson's 'Dictionary,' ad verb.) But it is possible that it may have the same origin as our English word, as in Scotch proceedings a prisoner is sometimes said to be entered in pannel to stand trial. (Arnot's Criminal Trials,' p. 12.) PANOPTICON. [BENTHAM, in BIOG. DIV.]

PANORAMA (from the Greek word wav, all, and paua, a view), a picture showing a view completely around the spectator. This in

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