A co-ordinate relation is a relation existing between ideas of equal rank, or between thoughts of equal rank; as, John and James study, and Henry is a lawyer, but his brother is a doctor.

A subordinate relation is a relation existing between ideas or thoughts of unequal rank; as, The book is on the table, and I will do the work if he will let me.

NOTE. Two ideas or two thoughts are equal in rank if they are independent of each other. They are unequal in rank if one limits the other.

EXERCISE IV.

In the following sentences point out the words which suggest relations, and in each case explain whether the relation is co-ordinate or subordinate.

1. Bread and milk is a good food.

2. Henry and James go to school.

3.

4.

A man is not quite a brute if he can blush.

If I were you, I would study.

5. He is neither old nor infirm.

6. They cook and eat in the same room.

7. The book which I loaned you, and which you lost, was

a present from my father.

8.

Not a truth has to art or to science been given,

But brows have ached for it, and souls toiled and striven.-Lytton.

EXERCISE V.

In the following sentences, point out the words suggesting objects; those representing attributes; and those showing relations. Classify, according to the above outline, the objects, the attributes, and the relations.

1. The judge rode slowly down the lane.

2. Still sits the schoolhouse by the road.

3.

Pittsburg is called "The Smoky City."

4. He sings to the wide world, and she to her nest, In the nice ear of nature which song is the best? Love and hate rule all human beings.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Corn is a species of grass.

A very poor woman stood wringing her hands.
Whom the gods love die young.

9. He who is his own lawyer has a fool for his client.

10.

The old are cautious, the young are venturesome.

11. Mindful of the unhonored dead, Gray wrote his Elegy. 12. The prompt and regular are here; the careless and uncertain are absent.

13. The true friend will sometimes be considered unkind; the false will always flatter and fawn.

14. The evil that men do lives after them; the good is oft interred with their bones.

15. Men's evil manners live in brass; their virtues we write in water.

CHAPTER II.

CLASSES OF WORDS.

16. A word is the expression, or sign, of an idea. Since there are three general classes of ideas, there must be, also, three general classes of words corresponding to them. The three general classes of words are substantive words, attributive words, and relational words.

17. A substantive word is a word which represents an object. The word, substantive, literally means standing under. The object was thought of as standing under and supporting its attributes.

There are two kinds of substantive words: nouns and pronouns. A noun represents an object by naming it;

as, John, man, tree, etc. A pronoun represents an object without naming it; as, he, they, it, etc.

18. An attributive word is a word which expresses an attribute. Attributive words are divided into three classes adjectives, adverbs, and attributive verbs. An adjective is an attributive word which expresses an attribute of an object without asserting it. In the sentence, Large men are strong, "large" and "strong" are adjectives expressing attributes of the objects represented by the noun "men."

An adverb is an attributive word which expresses an attribute of an attribute or of a relation. In the sentence, "The water is running very swiftly just below the bridge," "swiftly" is an adverb expressing an attribute of the attribute running, and "just" is an adverb expressing an attribute of the relation expressed by "below."

An attributive verb is a word which expresses an attribute of an object by asserting it. In the sentence, The boy studies, "studies" asserts the attribute which may be expressed with an adjective; as, The boy is studious.

19. A relational word is a word which expresses a relation. There are three classes of relational words: conjunctions, prepositions, and copulative verbs.

A conjunction is a relational word which expresses a relation between ideas of equal rank, or between thoughts of equal or of unequal rank; as, John and James will learn if they study.

A preposition is a relational word which expresses a relation between ideas of unequal rank; as, The book on the table is a reader.

A copulative verb is a relational word which asserts the relation between the subject-idea and the predicateidea; as, The boy is small.

20. We have now classified all the words that enter into the structure of the sentence; but there are two classes of words which have ceased to represent definite ideas, but they are used in speech. They are the interjections and expletives.

An interjection is a word used to express emotion or feeling, but represents no definite idea. The same interjection may express a variety of emotions. Ah, fie, pshaw, are interjections.

An expletive is a word without meaning used to change the form of the sentence, or used simply as an introductory word. The italicized words in the following sentences are expletives:

21. Compare the following outline of the word with the outline of the idea (15).

22. The sentence is called speech. Words that enter into the structure of the sentence are called "parts of speech" because they are parts of the sentence. A strict classification will give only seven parts of speech as the outline will show. But the interjection is usually classed as a part of speech, because it expresses an attribute of feeling and, perhaps, to some extent it colors the thought expressed by the sentence. Although the interjection is found associated with the sentence, it has no syntactical relation with it.

23. The expletive is never classed as a separate part of speech because its expletive use is only a secondary use. Such words, in their regular functions, are adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, or prepositions.

24. Words should be classed according to their general use in the sentence and not according to an occasional use. In the sentence, He has a gold watch, "gold" is a noun used attributively; the adjective form is golden. In the sentence, The wicked shall be punished, "wicked" has an attributive use and a substantive use, but it should be classed as an adjective used substantively. The regular use of "wicked" is to express an attribute and not an object. The noun form of "wicked" is wickedness.

25. We have now laid the foundation for the "parts of speech," based upon their use in the sentence. We find that there are seven classes of words properly called "parts of speech": nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions-and two other classes of words-interjections and expletives—that have no syntactical relations.

EXERCISE VI.

In the following sentences, classify all the words and give the reasons for your classification:

1. Hard study made this man a scholar.

2. Is your name Shylock?

3. The ambitious strive for fame.

4.

He fears to give a farthing to the poor. 5. Men's opinions differ.

6. They called him John.

Brevity is the soul of wit.

7.

A clear conscience is a good pillow.
There are four pecks in a bushel.
He says that it is wicked to lie.

11. He turned and left the room.

14.

Hurrah! we have a holiday.

15. And her modest answer and graceful air,

Show her wise and good as she is fair.