different parts of the United States, and ready for service when wanted. Causes have recently occurred which, it is presumed, will require a considerable increase of our standing army. The secretary is assisted by a number of subor

ninate officers and clerks.

§ 5. In this department is transacted the business relating to military pensions. A pension is a yearly allowance to a person by the government for past services. In this coun

Laws were

try pensions are granted for services in war. early enacted by congress granting pensions to persons disabled in the war of the revolution so as to be unable to support themselves by manual labor. To the pension list were afterwards added those who were disabled in the war of 1812. By later laws, the pension list has been extended to all who had served for six months at least in the army or navy during the war of the evolution, and to their widows during their lives. The usual allowance to pensioners is eight dollars a month. Those who were officers receive a greater compensation.

§ 6. The secretary of the navy superintends the business relating to the navy. A navy is the fleet, or ships of war, which a nation keeps to defend itself in time of war, and to protect the trade of its citizens on the high seas in time of peace. There are also employed in this department three navy commissioners, and a number of clerks.

§ 7. The attorney-general prosecutes and conducts all suits in the supreme court in which the United States are concerned, and gives his advice upon questions of law, when requested by the president or heads of departments.

§ 8. The postmaster-general establishes post-offices, appoints postmasters, and provides for carrying the mails. The business of this department is very extensive. There is a postmaster in almost every town in the union; in some towns there are several. Letters and papers are sent by mail to the most distant parts of the United States in a few days.

9. Every postmaster is required to keep an account of all the letters sent from and received at his office, and of the names of the offices to which sent, and from which received; and also the letters on which the postage was paid when

mailed, and on which it was unpaid, and of those which are sent free of postage: and at the end of every quarter such account is sent to the postmaster-general, together with a statemer.t of all moneys received for postage and paid out by each postmaster. All letters which were advertised as remaining in his office at the end of the preceding quarter, and which still remain in the office, are put up in a package, and sent to the general post-office, where they are opened, and, if found to contain any thing of sufficient importance, are returned by mail to the writers of them.

§ 10. The returns thus made to the postmaster-general, are all examined, to see whether they are correct or not. The examination of the account of every postmaster in the union, the making of contracts for carrying mails on all the post-roads, and a variety of other business, require the labor. of a great number of assistants and clerks.

§ 11. Postmasters whose compensation is below a certain sum specified by law; certain civil officers at the seat of government; and members of congress from thirty days before the commencement of the first session of the term for which they are elected, until the commencement of the first session of the next congress, may, to a limited extent, receive and send letters and papers free of postage, by franking them; which is done by writing their names and offices on the outside. And the publisher of every newspaper may send free, and without a written frank upon it, a copy of his paper to the publisher of every paper in the United States.

§ 12. The rates of postage were much reduced in the year 1845. On letters weighing half an ounce or less, and carried any distance not exceeding five hundred miles, the postage is five cents; any greater distance, ten cents. Newspapers are carried any distance within the state for one cent; if carried out of the state, one cent is charged for any distance not exceeding one hundred miles; for any greater distance, one cent and a half. Rates are also fixed for carrying pamphlets, magazines, circulars, &c.; but as efforts are making to effect farther changes in the rates of postage, and as alterations will probably soon be made, it is deemed inexpedient to give the rates of all the various kinds of publications.

§ 13. The number of post-offices in the United States is nearly 15,000. The amount annually received for postage at all the post-offices, exceeds $2,000,000; and the expenses of the department, including what is paid for the transportation of the mail, amount to about the same sum. Postmasters receive for their services, a certain rate per cent. on the money received by them at their respective offices. This per centage varies, however, being greater or less when the amount of postages for each quarter is over or under a certain sum. There are a few post-offices whose post-masters receive fixed salaries.

§ 14. All the secretaries and postmaster-general, except the secretary of the treasury, report annually to the president, who lays their reports before congress. The secretary of the treasury reports directly to congress.

EXERCISES.

§ 1. Name the head officers of the several executive departments. As advisers of the president, what are they called?

§ 2. What are the principal duties of the secretary of

state?

§ 3. What is the nature of the business of the treasury department? By what officers is this business done?

4. To what do the duties of the secretary of war relate? What is said of the standing army?

§ 5. What is a pension? To whom are pensions granted? § 6. What is the business of the secretary of the navy? What is a navy

?

§ 7. What are the duties of the attorney-general?

8. What are the duties of the postmaster-general? § 9. Describe the manner of keeping the accounts at the several post-offices. What are dead letters? How are they disposed of?

11. What is meant by franking? What persons enjoy the franking privilege?

§ 12. Mention the rates of postage on letters and news

papers.

§ 13. What is the number of post-offices in the Union? The receipts and expenditures? The compensation of postmasters?

§ 14. To whom do the heads of the departments make their annual reports?

CHAPTER XLVIII.

Of the Judicial Department.

§ 1. As has been stated, there was, before the adoption of the constitution, no established national judiciary. The necessity of such a tribunal to decide disputes between states, and other matters of a national character, having become apparent, power was given to congress to establish national courts.

§ 2. It is proper that all cases arising between citizens of the same state, as well as all crimes committed against its laws, should be tried by the courts of the state. But when cases arise under the laws of the United States, or between different states, or citizens of different states; or when crimes are committed on the ocean, or elsewhere beyond the jurisdiction of a state, it is evident that some other than a state court ought to try such cases. For example, if a person should violate the laws of congress made for the collection of duties on goods imported, he must be prosecuted in a court of the United States. So a murder committed at sea, beyond the limits of a state, is properly tried in a national court. Piracy, which is robbery on the high seas, is always tried in such court. And so all other cases mentioned in article 2, section 2, of the constitution.

§ 3. The lowest national courts are the district courts. Every state contains at least one district; a few of the large states two to each. In each district is a judge, called a district judge, who has power to hold a court. There are also in each district a district attorney to attend to suits on the part of the United States, and a marshal, whose duties in this court are like those of a sheriff in state courts. This

court has four stated terms a year. It tries certain kinds of civil cases, and the lower crimes against the laws of the United States.

§ 4. The circuits embrace larger territories than the districts. There are nine circuits in the United States, each including several states. In each there is a circuit judge, who holds a court in his circuit twice a year. The judge of the district within which the court is held, sits with the circuit judge in holding a circuit court. Besides certain kinds of civil causes, this court tries the highest crimes against the laws of the United States; as murder within forts, arsenals, and other territory, the property of the United States, or on the high seas. In consequence of the late increase of the number of states and of population, an addition to the number of circuits has been proposed, and will probably soon be made.

§ 5. The supreme court consists of all the judges of the circuit courts, one of whom is the chief justice of the supreme court. There are but few causes which originate or commence in this court; its principal business is to rejudge cases that are brought up from the circuit courts. It holds one session annually, at the seat of government, commencing on the second Monday of January, and continuing about eight weeks.

§ 6. An important object of a supreme court of the United States, is to secure a correct and uniform meaning or interpretation to the constitution and laws of the United States. State laws, and decisions in state courts, are sometimes made which are supposed to be repugnant to the constitution and laws of the United States. And what may be pronounced constitutional by a court in one state, may be declared unconstitutional in another. Hence any case which has been tried in the highest or last court in a state, and which brings in question the constitution or laws of the United States, may be removed by writ of error to the supreme court of the United States, whose decision governs the judgment of all inferior courts throughout the Union.

§ 7. All judges of the United States' courts are appointed by the president and senate, and hold their offices for life, or during good behavior.