11-11-32MF-P 11-7-52 THE LONDON ENCYCLOPÆDIA. ROM E. CARUS, NUMERIAN, AND CARINUS.-Carus, who was prætorian prefect to the deceased emperor, was chosen by the army to succeed him; and he, to strengthen his authority, united with him his two sons Carinus and Numerian in command; the former of whom was as remarkable for his vices, as the latter was for his virtues. Carus had scarcely time to punish the murderers of the late monarch, when he was alarmed by a fresh irruption of the Sarmatians, over whom he gained a signal victory. The Persian monarch also made some attempts upon the empire; but Carus assured his ambassadors that, if their master persisted in his obstinacy, all his fields should shortly be as bare as his own bald head: a dreadful battle ensuing, he once more gained a complete victory. But he was shortly after struck dead by lightning in his tent, with many others around him. Numerianus was inconsolable for his death; and brought a disorder upon his eyes, we are told, with weeping. The peculiarity of his situation, after some time, excited the ambition of Aper, his father-inlaw, who supposed that he could now, without danger, aim at the empire himself. He therefore hired a villain to murder the emperor in his litter; and, to conceal the fact, gave out that he was alive, but unable to endure the light. In this manner was the dead body carried about for some days, Aper continuing to attend it with the utmost respect, and to take orders as usual. However, the offensiveness of its smell, at length discovered the treachery, and excited a universal uproar. In the midst of this tumult, Dioelesian, one of the most noted commanders of his time, was chosen emperor, and with his own hand slew Aper, having thus, as it is said, fulfilled a prophecy, that he should be emperor after he had slain a boar, alluding to the name of his rival. Carinus did not long survive his father and brother; for giving himself up to his vices, and opposing the new-made emperor, the competitors led their forces into Masia; where, Dioclesian being victorious, Carinus was slain by a tribune of his own army, whose wife he had formerly abused. DIOCLESIAN AND MAXIMIAN.-Dioclesian received his name from Dioclea, the town in which he was born; and was about forty years old when he was elected emperor. He pardoned all who had joined Carinus. Conscious also that the weight of the empire was too heavy for one alone to sustain, he took in Maximian, his general, as a partner in the throne. There never was a period in which the empire had more numerous or formidable enemies to oppose. In VOL. XIX.-PART 1. Du Gaul the peasants and laborers made a dangerous insurrection, under Amandus and Helianus, but were subdued by Maximian. Achilleus, who commanded in Egypt, proclaimed himself emperor; and it was not without many bloody engagements that he was overcome. In Africa, the Roman legions, joined with many of the natives, seized upon the public revenues, and plundered those who continued in their duty. These were also subdued by Maximian. About the same time a principal commander in Britain, named Carausius, then proclaimed himself emperor, and possessed himself of the island. To oppose this general, Maximian made choice of Constantius Chlorus, whom he created Cæsar, and married to Theodora his daughter-inlaw. About this time also Narses, king of Persia, began a dangerous war, and invaded Mesopotamia. The Persians, however, were overcome in a decisive engagement, and their camp plundered and taken. There only remained, of all the enemies of the empire, those who lay to the northward, the Goths, Sarmatians, Alani, Quadi, &c., who poured down in incredible numbers. ring this period, as if the external miseries of the empire had not been sufficient, the tenth and last great persecution raged against the Christians. It exceeded all the former in severity; and, such was the zeal with which it was pursued, that, in an ancient inscription, we are informed that they had effaced the name and superstition of the Christians. Their attempts, however, were but the malicious efforts of an expiring party; for Christianity soon after was established by law. In the midst of the troubles raised by this persecution, and of the contests that struck at the internal parts of the state, Dioclesian and Maximian surprised the world by resigning their dignities on the same day, and both retiring into private stations. Historians are much divided concerning the motives that thus induced them to give up those honors which they had purchased with so much danger. When some attempted to persuade Dioclesian to resume the empire, he replied, That, if they knew his present happiness, they would rather endeavour to imitate than disturb it.' Maximian, his partner in the empire and in resignation, was by no means so contented. He conducted various intrigues for a return to power, and endeavouring to force his own daughter, and destroy her husband, he was detected, and condemned to die by whatever death he should think proper; Lactantius tells us that he chose hanging. CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS, AND GALERIUS.Upon the resignation of the two emperors the B two Cæsars were universally acknowledged as their successors. They agreed to divide the empire, Constantius being appointed to govern the western parts; namely, Italy, Sicily, the greatest part of Africa, together with Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Germany: Galerius had the eastern parts; to wit, Illyricum, Pannonia, Thrace, Macedonia, all the provinces of Greece, and the Lesser Asia, with Egypt, Syria, Judea, and all the countries eastward. The greatness of the division, however, soon induced the emperors to take in two partners more, Severus and Maximin, who were made Cæsars, and assisted in the conducting of affairs: so that the empire now was under the guidance of four persons, all invested with supreme authority. We are informed but of few particulars of the reign of Constantius, except a detail of his character, which appears in every light most amiable. In the second year of his reign he went over into Britain; and, leaving his son Constantine as a kind of hostage in the court of his partner in the empire, took up his residence at York. Here, when ill past recovery, he sent for him, and, raising himself up in his bed, gave him his dying instructions. In the mean time Galerius, Constantius's partner, being informed of Constantine's advancement, testified the most ungovernable rage; declaring Severus emperor in opposition. About this time also another pretender to the empire started up. This was Maxentius, who was very much favored by the soldiers, whom he permitted to pillage at discretion. To oppose Maxentius Severus led a numerous army towards Rome; but his soldiers, considering against whom they were to fight, immediately abandoned him. To revenge his death Galerius marched into Italy, resolving to destroy the whole senate. His soldiers however, upon approaching the capital, began to waver; when he had recourse to entreaties, imploring them not to abandon him; and, retiring, made Licinius, the son of a poor laborer in Dacia, Cæsar, in the room of Severus. Soon after he was seized with a disorder which baffled all the skill of his physicians, and carried him off after he had languished in torments for nearly a year. His cruelty to the Christians was one of the many crimes alleged against him; but he abated much of his severities against them in his illness. MAXENTIUS.-Constantine, being thus delivered from his greatest opponent, now possessed. more power than any of his rivals. The empire was at that time divided between him and three others: Maxentius, who governed in Rome, a person of a cruel disposition, and a stedfast supporter of paganism; Licinius, who was adopted by Galerius, and commanded in the east; and Maximin, who had formerly been declared Cæsar with Severus, and who also governed some of the eastern provinces. For some time all things seemed to wear a peaceful appearance: till either ambition or the tyrannical conduct of Maxentius induced Constantine to engage in an expedition to expel that commander from Rome, and to make the proper preparations for marching into Italy. Upon this occasion he formed a resolution which produced a mighty change in the politics as well as the morals of mankind, and gave a new turn to the councils of the wise and the pursuits of the ambitious. See in his life, article CONSTANTINE, the account of his conversion to Christianity. After this he consulted with several of the principal teachers of Christianity, and made a public avowal of that persuasion, thus attaching to his interest his soldiers, who were mostly Christians. He lost no time in entering Italy with 90,000 foot and 8000 horse; and soon advanced to the very gates of Rome. Maxentius, who had long given himself up to ease and debaucheries, now began to make preparations when it was too late. He first put in practice all the superstitious rites which paganism taught to be necessary; and then consulted the Sibylline books, whence he was informed that on that day the great enemy of Rome should perish. This prediction, which was equivocal, he applied to Constantine; wherefore, leaving all things in the best posture, he advanced from the city with an army of 100,000 foot and 18,000 horse. The engagement was for some time fierce and bloody: till, his cavalry being routed, victory declared upon the side of his opponent, and he himself was drowned in his flight by the breaking down of a bridge, as he attempted to cross the river Tiber. Constantine, in consequence of this victory, entering the city, disclaimed all the praises which the senate and people were ready to offer, ascribing his success to a superior power. even caused the cross, which he was said to have seen in the heavens, to be placed at the right of all his statues, with this inscription: That, under the influence of that victorious ensign, Constantine had delivered the city from the yoke of tyrannical power.' He afterwards ordained that no criminal should for the future suffer death by the cross; and edicts were soon after issued, declaring that the Christians should be eased from their grievances, and received into places of trust and authority. Thus the new religion soon prevailed over the whole empire. He CONSTANTINE AND LICINIUS.-While this great change was proceeding, Maximin, who governed in the east, marched against Licinius with a very numerous army; but a general engagement ensued, in which Maximin suffered a total defeat. Maximin, however, having escaped the carnage, once more put himself at the head of another army, resolving to try the fortune of the field; but death anticipated his designs. Constantine and Licinius being now undisputed possessors and partners in the empire, all things promised a peaceable continuance of their friendship and power. Pagan writers ascribe the rupture that unexpectedly took place between these two potentates to Constantine; while the Christians, on the other hand, impute it to Licinius. Both sides exerted all their power, as usual, to prevail, and, at the head of very formidable armies, came to an engagement near Cybalis, in Pannonia. Previous to the battle Constantine, in the midst of the Christian bishops, begged the assistance of Heaven; while Licinius, with equal zeal, called upon the pagan priests to intercede with the gods. Constantine, after an obstinate resistance from the enemy, became victorious; took their camp; and, after some time, compelled Licinius to sue for a short truce. It was indeed short: but we have: pursued the rest of the history of the first of the Christian emperors in the article referred to. He conceived and executed the bold measure of transferring the seat of the empire from Rome to Constantinople. The empire had long before been in the most declining state; but this gave precipitation to its downfall: it never after resumed its former splendor. The inhabitants of Rome, though with reluctance, submitted to the change; nor was there for several years any disturbance in the state, until the Goths renewed their inroads on the Danube. Constantine, however, soon repressed their incursions, and so straightened them that nearly 100,000 of their number perished. The government of the empire was afterwards divided as follows:-Constantine, the emperor's eldest son, commanded in Gaul and the western provinces; Constantius governed Africa and Illyricum; and Constans ruled in Italy. Dalmatius, the emperor's brother, was sent to defend those parts that bordered upon the Goths; and Annibalianus, his nephew, had the charge of Cappadocia and Armenia Minor. The latter part of the reign of Constantine was peaceful and splendid; ambassadors from the remotest Indies came to acknowledge his authority; the Persians, who were ready for fresh inroads, upon finding him prepared to oppose, sent humbly to desire his friendship and forgiveness. He died at above sixty years old, and had reigned above thirty years. tributed among the populace what sums he found; which induced not only the city, but the neighbouring country, to espouse his cause. Constans being informed of what had passed, and finding himself unable to resist the usurper, fled towards Spain. He was overtaken, however, by Gaiso, whom Magnentius had sent after him with a body of troops, and despatched at Helena, near the foot of the Pyrenees. CONSTANTIUS.-Constantius had been engaged in a war with the Persians, in which little advantage had been gained on either side; but, the Persians now giving no more disturbance, he marched against the usurpers; for besides Magnentius there were at this time two other pretenders to the western empire. Veteranio, general of the foot in Pannonia, had on the first news of the death of Constans, caused himself to be proclaimed emperor by the legions under his command. He was a native of Upper Masia, and advanced in years when he usurped the sovereignty; but so illiterate that he then first learned to read. The third was Flavius Popilius Nepotianus, who claimed right as nephew of Constantine the Great. Having assembled a company of gladiators and men of desperate fortunes he assumed the purple on the 3d of June 350, and in that attire presented himself before the gates of Rome. The prefect Anicetus, who commanded there for Magnentius, sallied out against him with a body of Romans; who were soon driven back into the city. Soon after Nepotianus made himself master of the city itself, which he filled with blood and slaughter. Magnentius, being informed of what had happened, sent against this new competitor his chief favorite Marcellinus. Nepotianus received him with great resolution; a battle ensued between the soldiers of Magnentius and the Romans who had espoused the cause of Nepotianus; but the latter being betrayed by a senator, named Heraclitus, his men were put to flight, and he himself killed, after having enjoyed the sovereignty only twenty-eight days. Marcellinus ordered his head to be carried on the point of a lance through the principal streets of the city; put to death all those who had declared for him; and, under pretence of preventing disturbances, commanded a general massacre of all the relations of Constantine. Soon after, Magnentius himself came to Rome to make the necessary preparations for resisting Constantius, who was exerting himself to the utmost to revenge the death of his brother. In the city he behaved most tyrannically: put to death many persons of distinction; seized their estates; and obliged the rest to contribute half of what they were worth towards the expense of the war. Having thus raised great sums, he assembled an army of Romans, Germans, Gauls, Franks, Britons, Spaniards, &c.; but, dreading the uncertain issues of war, he despatched ambassadors to Constantius with proposals of accommodation. Constantius set out from Antioch about the beginning of autumn; and, passing through Constantinople, arrived at Heraclea, where he was met by the deputies of Magnentius, and others from Veteranio, who had agreed to support each other in case the emperor would hearken to no CONSTANTINE'S SONS.-After the death of Constantine, the army and senate proclaimed his three sons emperors, without taking any notice of Dalmatius, and Annibalianus, who were soon after murdered, with Julius Constantinus the late emperor's brother, and all their friends and adherents. Thus the family of Constantine was reduced to the three sons and three nephews; Gallus and Julian, the sons of Julius Constantius, and Nepotianus, the son of Eutropia, Constantine's sister. Of these Gallus owed his life to a malady, from which no one thought he could recover; and Julian to his infancy, being then only seven years of age. The three brothers divided among themselves the dominions of the deceased princes; but did not long agree. In 340 Constantine, having in vain solicited Constans to yield part of Italy to him, raised a considerable army; and under pretence of marching to the assistance of his brother Constantius, who was then at war with the Persians, made himself master of several places in Italy. Hereupon Constans detached part of his army against him; and Constantine, being drawn into an ambuscade near Aquileia, was cut off with his whole forces. His body was thrown into the Ansa; but, being afterwards discovered, was sent to Constantinople, and interred near that of his father. By the defeat and death of his brother, Constans remained sole master of all the western empire, in the quiet possession of which he continued till the year 350. This year Magnentius, the son of a native of Germany, finding Constans despised by the army on account of his indolence and inactivity, resolved to murder him, and set up for himself. Having gained over the chief officers of the army, he seized on the Imperial palace at Autun, and dis terms. The deputies of Magnentius proposed a match between him and Constantina, the sister of Constantius, and widow of Annibalianus; offering, at the same time, to Constantius the sister of Magnentius. The emperor would hearken to no terms with Magnentius; but, that he might not have to oppose two enemies at once, concluded a separate treaty with Veteranio, by which he agreed to take him for his partner in the empire. But, when Veteranio ascended the tribunal along with Constantius, the soldiers pulled him down, saying they would acknow ledge no emperor but Constantius. On this Veteranio threw himself at the emperor's feet, and implored his mercy. Constantius received him with great kindness, and sent him into Bithynia, where he allowed him a maintainence suitable to his quality. Now master of all Illyricum, and of the army commanded by Veteranio, Constantius resolved to march against Magnentius. In the mean time, however, on advice that the Persians were preparing to invade the eastern provinces, he married his sister Constantina to his cousin german Gallus; created him Cæsar on the 15th of March; and allotted him for his share not only all the east, but likewise Thrace and Constantinople. About the same time Magnentius gave the title of Cæsar to his brother Decentius, whom he despatched into Gau! to defend that country against the barbarians who had invaded it; for Constantius had not only stirred up the Franks and Saxons to break into that province by promising to relinquish to them all the places they should conquer, but had sent him large supplies of men and arms for that purpose. On this encouragement the barbarians invaded Gaul with a great army, overthrew Decentius in a pitched battle, committed every where dreadful ravages, and reduced the country to a most deplorable situation. Mean time Magnentius, having assembled a numerous army, left Italy, and, crossing the Alps, advanced into the plains of Pannonia, where Constantius, whose main strength consisted of cavalry, was waiting for him. Magnentius, hearing that his competitor was encamped at a small distance, invited him by a messenger to the extensive plains of Sciscia on the Sauve, there to decide which of them had the best title to the empire. This challenge was by Constantius received with great joy; but, as his troops marched towards Sciscia in disorder, they fell into an ambuscade, and were put to flight. With this success Magnentius was so elated that he rejected all terms of peace; after some time, a general engagement ensued at Mursa, in which Magnentius was entirely defeated, with the loss of 24,000 men. Constantius, though victor, is said to have lost 30,000. All authors agree that the battle proved fatal to the western empire, and greatly contributed to its speedy decline. After his defeat at Mursa, Magnentius retired into Italy, where he recruited his scattered forces as well as he could. But in the beginning of the following year, 352, Constantius, having assembled his troops, surprised and took a strong castle on the Julian Alps, belonging to Magnentius, without the loss of a man. After this the emperor ad Find vanced in order to force the rest; upon which Magnentius was struck with such terror that he immediately abandoned Aquileia, and ordered the troops that guarded the other passes of the Alps to follow him. Thus Constantius, entering Italy without opposition, made himself master of Aquileia. Thence he advanced to Pavia, where Magnentius gained a considerable advantage over him. Notwithstanding this loss, Constantius reduced the whole country bordering on the Po, and Magnentius's men deserted to him in whole troops, delivering up to him the places they had garrisoned; by which the tyrant was so disheartened that he left Italy, and retired with all his forces into Gaul. Soon after this, Africa, Sicily, and Spain, declared for Constantinus; upon which Magnentius sent a senator, and after him some bishops, to treat of a peace; but the emperor treated the senator as a spy, and sent back the bishops without an answer. ing his affairs now desperate, and that there was no hopes of pardon, Magnentius recruited his armry in the best manner he could, and despatched an assassin into the east to murder Gallus Cæsar. The assassin gained over some of Gallus's guards; but the plot being discovered they were all seized and executed as traitors. In 353 the war against Magnentius was carried on with more vigor than ever, and at last happily ended by a battle fought in that part of Gaul afterwards called Dauphiny. Magnentius, being defeated, took shelter in Lyons: but the few soldiers who attended him, despairing of any further success, resolved to purchase the emperor's favor by delivering up to him his rival. Accordingly they surrounded the house where he lodged; upon which the tyrant, in despair, slew with his own hand his mother, his brother Desiderius, whom he had created Cæsar, and such of his friends and relations as were with him; and then, fixing his sword in a wall, threw himself upon it. After the death of Magnentius, his brother Decentius, finding himself surrounded on all sides by the emperor's forces, chose also to strangle himself. Thus Constantius was left sole master of the Roman empire. His panegyrists say that after his victory he behaved with the greatest humanity, forgiving and receiving into favor his greatest enemies; other historians tell us that he now became haughty, imperious, and cruel, of which many instances are given. In this year, 353, the empire was subject to very grievous calamities. Gaul was ravaged by the barbarians beyond the Rhine, and the disbanded troops of Magnentius: at Rome the populace rose on account of a scarcity of provisions. In Asia the Isaurian robbers over-ran Lycaonia and Pamphylia and laid siege to Seleucia. At the same time the Saracens committed dreadful ravages in Mesopotamia; the Persians also invaded the provinces of Anthemusia on the Euphrates. But the Eastern provinces were not so much harassed by barbarians as by Gallus Cæsar himself, who ought to have protected them. That prince was naturally of a cruel, haughty, and tyrannical disposition; but, elated with his successes against the Persians, he at last behaved like a madman. His cruelty is said to have been heightened by the instigations of his wife Constantina, who is |
