of his life is that by madame von Wolzogen, his sister-in-law (Stuttgard, 1830, 2 vols.). The second and third parts of his Wallenstein have been translated into English by Coleridge. His Don Carlos,and his Thirty Years' War, have also been translated.

SCHILLER-SPAR (from the German verb schillern, to exhibit a play of colors); a foliated mineral, whose primitive form is unknown. Besides the principal cleavage, there is a second one, less distinct: the inclination of the one to the other is between 135° and 140°; fracture uneven, splintery; lustre metallic, pearly, and eminent upon the perfect faces of cleavage, indistinctly vitreous upon the other faces; color olivegreen and blackish-green, inclining to pinchbeck-brown upon the perfect faces of cleavage; streak grayish-white; hardness about that of fluor; specific gravity 2.69. It frequently occurs intermingled with serpentine. It consists of

When exposed to a high degree of heat, it becomes hard, and forms a porcelainlike mass. It occurs at Basta, in the forest of Hazeburg, in the Hartz. It is found in the U. States, at Blandford, Massachusetts, in serpentine.

SCHIMMELPENNINK, Rutger Jan, the last chief magistrate of the republic of the United Netherlands, or grand pensionary of the Batavian republic, was born at Deventer, in Holland, in 1761, and educated at Leyden, where he took his degree; on which occasion he published Dissertatio de Imperio populari rite temperato. He afterwards practised at the bar with much credit. In 1798, he was appointed ambassador to France, by the Batavian republic, in which post he acquitted himself with satisfaction to his country, and honor to himself. In 1801, he was accredited in the same character, first to the congress assembled at Amiens, and afterwards to England. The war having again broke out, Schimmelpennink resumed his embassy to France. In 1805, he was created grand-pensionary of Holland, but with different powers from those anciently attached to that character. This power, however, ceased in consequence of the elevation of Louis Bonaparte to the throne of Holland, and Schimmelpennink received, in lieu of his office, the grand-cor

don of the order of Holland, about that time instituted, and became, by the change in the government, a senator of France, as well as of Holland, the two countries being united. He received also the title of count, with the appointment of grandtreasurer of the Three Fleeces. He filled these offices down to the exclusion of Napoleon from the throne of France, and voted for the creation of a provisionary government in the latter instance. April 14, 1814, he sent in his resignation, and retired into private life. He died at Amsterdam, in 1825.

SCHINKEL, Charles Frederic, one of the most distinguished architects of the present age, professor in the academy of arts at Berlin, was born in 1781, at New Ruppin. He lost his father early, and studied at the gymnasium of Berlin. He afterwards applied himself to architecture, went in 1803 to Italy and France, and returned to Germany in 1805. The disasters of Prussia in 1806 were severely felt by all architects, and Schinkel devoted himself to landscape painting, in which he succeeded remarkably well. One of his most successful attempts was to represent various historical periods in a series of pictures. When the royal family returned to Berlin, his plans for several arrangements in the royal palace were approved by the queen. In 1819, he received an appointment in the ministry of commerce, manufactures, and architecture, and, in this capacity, has done much to improve the style of building in his country. In 1821, Schinkel was ordered to rebuild the theatre at Berlin. In 1824, the French institute made him a member of their body, as did also the academy of arts at Copenhagen. Berlin has many architectural monuments by this master, and the provinces are full of churches and other edifices, public and private, planned by him. His greatest plan, that of a grand cathedral, which the king of Prussia intended to erect in Berlin, has never been executed. The new museum at Berlin, a splendid monument of art, is the last of his great works. It was finished in 1828. In 1824, he visited Italy a second time. His last and best picture represents a landscape with buildings in Greece, at the time of her highest prosperity. It was given by the city of Berlin to the princess Louisi, daughter of the king, when married to prince Frederic, son of the king of the Netherlands.

SCHIRAS; a city of Persia, capital of Farsistan; 160 miles south-east of Ispahan; lon. 52° 44′ E., lat. 29° 37′ N.; pop

ulation before the earthquake of 1824, 52,000. It is situated between two mountains, on a plain of unrivalled beauty and fertility, the boast of Persia, upwards of twenty miles long, and twelve broad. The environs are laid out in magnificent gardens, the flowers and fruits of which form a favorite theme of Eastern poetry. Hafiz (q. v.) was a native of Schiras. His tomb, and that of Sadi (q. v.), are in the neighborhood of the city. The city is about six miles in circuit, but the walls have been suffered to fall to ruin. The streets are narrow, winding, and dirty, and the houses mean. The most remarkable public building is the great bazar, about a quarter of a mile long, built of yellow burnt brick, allotted to the different traders in the city. The citadel, the residence of the governor, is a fortified square of eighty yards. The royal palace within is far from being an elegant structure. Schiras carries on an extensive commerce, which consists chiefly in receiving from Bushire the spices and cotton goods of India, and transmitting them to Ispahan and Yezd. The sides of the hills that bound the plain of Schiras, produce a wine, which has the highest reputation of any in the East. Schiras is an ancient city, and has been the capital of the Persian empire, but exhibits no ruins to attest its former greatness. SCHIRVAN. (See Caucasus.)

SCHISM (expa, a fissure) is chiefly applied to separations happening through diversity of opinions among people of the same religion. In the Catholic church, the election of popes has often given rise to schisms, by the division of the Christian world in favor of rival candidates. The longest schism of this kind was the Great Schism, which began in 1378, when Urban VI and Clement VII both claimed the papacy. This was finally settled by the council of Constance, which effected the general recognition of pope Martin V, who was chosen by it in 1417. (See Pope.)

SCHLANGENBAD, and LANGENSCHWALBACH; two watering places in Nassau, near the charming Rheingau. (q. v.) The water (from 79-83 Fahrenheit) contains clay and lime. It feels like soap, softens and renders pliable the fibres of the skin, and is excellent in cases of stiffness and contraction. The slime which floats on the water is used to cure old ulcers.

SCHLEGEL; a name distinguished in German literature, chiefly as that of the two brothers Augustus William and Frederic von Schlegel. John Elias, their uncle, born in 1718, at Meissen, was the first 21

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German dramatic writer, after Gryphius, who contributed to the advancement of German belles-lettres. He died in 1749. His brother John Adolphus, a poet and pulpit orator, was born in 1721, at Meissen. He was the author of several valuable works, and made a translation of Batteux's Les Beaux Arts reduits à un même Principe, which he accompanied with notes and treatises of his own (1751, 3d edition 1770). He died in 1753.--John Henry, the third brother, was born in 1724, at Meissen, and died at Copenhagen in 1780. He is the author of valuable works on Danish history, and of some translations from English poets into German. Augustus William and Frederic are the sons of John Adolphus. The first was born September 8, 1767, at Hanover; and Frederic in 1772, at the same place. The former early manifested a great ability for learning languages, as well as much poetical talent. When eighteen years old, he recited, at the lyceum of Hanover, a piece in hexameters on the birth-day of the king, in which he gave a sketch of the history of German poetry, which was justly admired. He first studied theology at Göttingen, but soon quitted it for philology. At Göttingen, he gained the friendship of Bürger, who, in the preface to the second edition of his poems (1789), consecrated him to the service of the Muses, and prophesied his immortality in one of the finest German sonnets. A. W. Schlegel contributed to Bürger's Academy of BellesLettres. In 1787, when in the philological seminary under Heyne, a Latin treatise by him, on the geography of Homer, obtained a prize. After leaving Göttingen, he acted as tutor for three years in the house of a banker in Amsterdam. He returned to Germany, and took part in the Hora, and Schiller's Almanac of the Muses, in which his translations from Dante, with commentaries, attracted particular attention. Until 1799, he was one of

the most active contributors to the General Literary Gazette. In 1797, he began his translation of Shakspeare, of which nine volumes have appeared. Tieck has undertaken the revision of them, and the addition of the pieces not yet translated, in a new edition. We know of no translation so perfect as this. It may well be called a German reproduction of the original. It has made Shakspeare a German popular poet to all intents and purposes, on the stage and in the closet. Schlegel had now become a professor at Jena, where he delivered lectures on æsthetics, and, from 1798 to 1800, was connected

with his brother in the publication of the Athenæum, a critical journal, which did much to promote a more independent spirit in German literature. The first edition of his poems appeared in 1800, and Schlegel became the second father of the German sonnet. In 1800, he also published his poetic attack on Kotzebue. In 1801, appeared his Characteristics and Critiques, in two volumes; in 1802, the Almanac of the Muses, published by him and Tieck, together, which is pervaded by a mysticosymbolical spirit. Having separated from his wife, he went, in 1802, to Berlin, where he delivered lectures, published in vol. iii of Europa. His Ion appeared in 1803. He took an active part in the publication of the Paper for the Fashionable World, which was opposed by Kotzebue's Freimüthige (Liberal); and a paper-war began, not very honorable to the latter. In 1803, appeared vol. i. of the Spanish Theatre, containing three pieces of Calderon: vol. ii. followed in 1809. These translations fully satisfied the high expectations which the public had formed from his translation of Shakspeare. In 1804, he published his Nosegays of Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese Poetry. In 1805, he travelled with madame de Staël (q. v.), and lived with her at Copet, in Italy, France, Vienna, and Stockholm. In his elegy Rome, he celebrates his generous friend. He wrote many critiques during this time, partly in the Jena Literary Gazette, partly in the Heidelberg Annals. In 1807, he published at Paris his Comparison of the Phædra of Euripides with that of Racine, which was written in French, and attracted much attention from the French literati. In 1808, he delivered lectures on the dramatic art, in Vienna, and published them, at a later period, in three volumes, 2d edition, 1817. They have been translated into almost all the languages of Europe. In 1812, he made a new collection of his poems (2d edition, 1820). In 1813, he became a political writer in French and German, accompanied the then crownprince of Sweden, as secretary, and received several orders, and the rank of nobility. After the fall of Napoleon, he returned to madame de Staël, after whose death, in 1818, he accepted a professorship in the university of Bonn, which had been but a short time established. His marriage with the daughter of Mr. Paulus (q. v.), in 1819, was dissolved in 1820. He now lectures chiefly upon the history of arts and sciences in ancient and modern times, and, since 1820, has published the Indian Library, a periodical for promoting the

study of the Oriental languages, particularly Sanscrit. He superintends the printing of the great Sanscrit work Bamayana, at the printing-office established by him at the expense of the Prussian government. In 1823, he published Bhagavad-Gita, an episode of the epos Mahabharata, with a Latin translation. His Oriental studies led him again to France, and, in 1823, to England, where he examined the manuscripts at London, Oxford, Cambridge, and Hayleybury. In the Bib liotheca Italiana, he wrote (in 1816) a very learned treatise, in Italian, on the bronze horses at Venice, which he declared to be Greek; another treatise (in 1817) in the Bibliothèque Universelle, at Geneva, on the group of Niobe, and, in the Zeitgenossen, a life of Necker; remarks on the Provencal language and literature, in French (1818); a historical notice of John of Fiesole; and many other pieces. In 1828, he defended himself, in a pamphlet, against the reproach of crypto-Catholicism.-His brother Frederic von Schlegel, born, as we mentioned above, in 1772, was intended by his father for a merchant, but was liberally educated, to leave him more freedom of choice. He became dissatis fied with the mercantile life during his apprenticeship at Leipsic, and his father withdrew him from his situation there. He was now sixteen years old, and devoted himself to philology with the greatest zeal, one year in Gottingen, and the rest in Leipsic; and could say, when he had ended his academic course, that there was no Greek or Latin author of importance whom he had not read at least once. About 1793, he first appeared as an author. He contributed to several periodicals of reputation, and, in 1797, produced his Greeks and Romans; in 1798, his Poetry of the Greeks and Romans (two vols.), a sort of continuation of the first. In Berlin, he undertook, in connexion with Schleiermacher (q. v.), the translation of Plato, but soon abandoned the project. In 1799, appeared the first volume of his Lucinda, which remained unfinished, and is reproached by many as an idealization of voluptuousness. In 1800, he settled as privatdocent at Jena, and appeared for the first time as a poet, publishing his productions in various periodicals. In 1802, he lived some time in Dresden, and then delivered lectures on philosophy in Paris, where he also published Europa, and occupied himself with the fine arts, and the languages of the south, particularly those of India. In 1808, he published a treatise on the Language and Wisdom of the

Indians; in 1804, a collection of romantic poems, of the middle ages, from printed sources and manuscripts, in two vols.; and, in 1805, Lother and Maller. We are indebted to him for illustrations of the history of Joan of Arc, drawn from the Notices et Extraits. He now returned to Germany, went over, with his wife, to the Catholic faith, at Cologne, and, in 1808, repaired to Vienna. In 1809, he received an appointment at the head-quarters of the archduke Charles, where he drew up sevcral powerful proclamations. When peace was concluded, he again delivered lectures in Vienna, on modern history and the literature of all nations. They were published in 1811 and 1812. His limited views in regard to religion, after his adoption of Catholicism, appear particularly in his modern history. In 1812, he published the German Museum, and gained the confidence of prince Metternich (q. v.) by various diplomatic papers, in consequence of which he was appointed Austrian counsellor of legation, at the diet in Frankfort. In 1818, he returned to Vienna, where he lived as secretary of the court, and counsellor of legation, and published a View of the Present Political Relations, and his complete works. In 1820, he undertook a periodical, called Concordia, intended to unite the various opinions on church and state; but he did not continue it long. He also published, at a much earlier period, the Writings of Novalis (see Hardenberg), in conjunction with his friend Tieck, and volume I of Florentine, written by his wife. In 1807, he also published a German translation of Corinna, before the French original appeared. Since 1822, his complete works have appeared in ten volumes, with some corrections and additions. He died August 9, 1829. The two brothers always lived on the best terms, however great the difference of their views on some points. The influence which they have exercised, particularly Augustus William, on belles-lettres in general, and especially in promoting a more correct understanding of the literature of the middle ages, is very great, and extends far beyond the confines of their native country. They will be remembered in the history of literature, as two minds of uncommon vigor.

SCHLEIERMACHER, Frederic Daniel Ernest, one of the most distinguished German theologians and philologists, was born at Breslau, in 1768, and received his education at the academy of the Moravian Brethren at Niesky. In 1787, he ceased to be a member of this society, left Barby,

where he had begun the study of theology, and went to Halle to continue it. In 1794, after having been employed as a teacher, he was ordained a clergyman, and appointed assistant preacher at Landsberg on the Warte. From 1796 to 1802, he was minister in the Charitè (a great hospital) at Berlin. During this period, he translated Fawcet's Sermons (two vols.), contributed to the Athenæum, conducted by the two Schlegels (q. v.), and wrote the Discourses on Religion, and the Monologues, and Letters of a Minister out of Berlin. He soon undertook his translation of Plato. Five volumes of this work had appeared in 1828; and the whole is probably now completed. Few men have ever entered so deeply into the spirit of Plato. In 1802, he published his first collection of sermons, which has since been followed by two others. In 1802, he removed to Stolpe, where he wrote his Critical View of Ethics. In the same year, he was appointed professor extraordinarius of theology at Halle, and preached to the university. In 1807, when Halle was separated from Prussia, he went to Berlin, and lectured there, as well as preached, with the greatest boldness, on the existing state of things, although a hostile force under Davoust occupied the city. In 1809, he was appointed preacher at the Trinity church in Berlin, and married. In 1810, when the new university was opened in that city, he was appointed professor ordinarius, as he had been at Halle during the last part of his residence there. In 1811, he was elected a member of the academy of sciences, and, in 1814, secretary of the philosophical class, when he was released from the duties which he had discharged in the department of public instruction in the ministry of the interior. Since 1811, many papers by him have appeared in the Memoirs of the Academy, chiefly relating to ancient philosophy. At this period, he wrote his View of the Study of Theology. When Schmalz strove to lower the elevated feeling of the people, after the wars of 1813, '14, and '15, to a tone more convenient for an absolute government, he brought out a pungent reply, characterized by a Platonic style of reasoning. His last work is his Doctrines of the Christian Faith, of which a second edition, probably, has appeared by this time. Few men have equalled Schleiermacher in activity. He delivers lectures in various departments of theology and philosophy. He preaches every Sunday (always without notes), besides writing much, and having a wide circle of official

labors. For many years his church has been crowded, and his lectures at the university are attended by large numbers of the students. He has many enthusiastic admirers; but the mystical party regard him with dislike. Schleiermacher has done much for the intellectual and religious advancement of his countrymen.

SCHLEISSHEIM; a royal palace three leagues from Munich. It has a magnificent gallery, in which above 2000 pictures are arranged, according to the schools to which they belong.

SCHLOSSER, Frederic Christopher, a distinguished historical writer, born at Jever, in 1776, early showed a strong inclination for study. In 1793, he went to Göttingen to study theology; and, after acting for several years as a private tutor, in several families, during which time he prosecuted his studies in history, philology, and philosophy, with great industry, and subsequently as a teacher in classical schools, he was made professor of history in the lyceum in Frankfort (1812), and, in 1817, in the university of Heidelberg. His Lives of Beza and Peter Martyn (1809); his Universal History; his General View of the History and Civilization of the Ancients (1806, seq.); and his History of the Eighteenth Century (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1823, all in German), display extensive acquaintance with the subjects, and much vigor and independence of thought. His History of the Eighteenth Century has been translated into French (Paris, 1825). SCHMALKALDIC LEAGUE. (See Smalcaldic League.).

SCHMIDT, Michael Ignatius, a German historian, was born in 1736, at Arnstein, in Würzburg. He studied theology in the Catholic seminary at Würzburg, and became a priest. During the seven years' war, he went to Suabia, received a benefice, and, in 1771, was made librarian of the university at Würzburg. He received by degrees higher appointments in that sovereign bishopric, did much for education, and, in 1778, began the publication of his German History, to which he devoted the remainder of his life. The empress of Austria was anxious to have him in her service, and caused him to be appointed superintendent of the archives. Joseph II made him teacher of history to his nephew, the present emperor, Francis I. After a residence of fourteen years at Vienna, he died there in 1794. Schmidt was the first who wrote a proper history of the German nation: his predecessors only gave the history of the emperors, of the empire, or the estates. His

chief aim was to show how the Germans became what they are; and he executed his plan with taste, judgment, and a philosophical spirit. His erudition was great. In the account of the reformation, he is not always impartial or faithful. His style is not to be imitated. This extensive work was published at Ulm, and later at Vienna. Joseph Milbiller continued Schmidt's history from his papers. The Vienna edition of the early history is in eight volumes; of the modern history, in seventeen. Dresch's History of Germany since the Confederation of the Rhine, is a continuation of the work of Schmidt and Milbiller, forming vols. 18, 19, and 20.

SCHNEEBERG; a town in the Erzge birge, kingdom of Saxony, with 4800 inhabitants. There are important mines of silver and cobalt in the neighborhood. The inhabitants manufacture lace and similar articles in large quantities.

SCHNEEKOPF. (See Schneekoppe.) SCHNEEKOPPE (snow-summit); the highest elevation of the Riesengebirge (q. v. 4950 feet above the level of the sea. It is not to be confounded with Schneekopf (snow-head), the highest summit of the Thuringian forest, which rises 2886 feet, or, according to some, 2975 feet above the sea.

SCHNEIDER, John Gottlob. This celebrated philologist, born at Kolm, in 1752, studied under Ernesti, at Leipsic, where a wealthy relation in Dresden supported him. His first publication was Observations on Anacreon, in 1770. Soon after, he went to Gottingen, and gained the favor of Heyne, who recommended him to Brunck, whom he accompanied to Strasburg, to assist him in the publication of his Analecta. He lived in this place three years, and then received an invitation to the university of Frankfort on the Oder, and there, with Brunck, published Oppian. For thirty-four years Schneider was professor of ancient languages there, and published a great number of critical editions of the ancient classics. He applied himself especially to those works of antiquity which related to natural science, as Elian's History of Beasts, and Nicander's two didactic poems on medicine, with the Greek Scholia, and the Periphrasis of Eutecnius. His Historia Amphibiorum, of which the two first volumes appeared in 1779, from unfavorable circuinstances, was not completed. He paid much attention to ichthyology. After thirty years of labor, he published the nine remaining books of Aristotle, containing the History of Beasts (Leipsic, 1811, 4