vols.); also the physical and meteorological works of Epicurus, the Analecta, relating to the metallurgy of the ancients, the Eclog Physica, &c. His excellent Greek Lexicon, which has passed through three editions, is the basis of that of Passow, and of the English-Greek Lexicon of Donnegan, (London, 1831.) It has contributed not a little to give a new impulse to the study of the Greek language in Germany. He has also edited the political works of Aristotle; the works of Xenophon, Æsop, the Pseudo-Orpheus, the Scriptores Rei Rustica, Vitruvius, Theophrastus, and other writers. When the university was removed, in 1811, from Frankfort on the Oder to Breslau, Schneider went thither, and was made chief librarian, in addition to his other office. He died there, January 12, 1822. SCHNEIDER, Eulogius; a German priest, vicar to the constitutional bishop of Strasburg, and afterwards public accuser before the criminal tribunal of the Lower Rhine, one of the most pernicious agents of Robespierre and his confederates. Armed with the authority of St. Just and Lebas, commissioners from the convention at Strasburg, Schneider proceeded through the department with a body of troops, and followed by the guillotine, on which he immolated citizens of every rank, sex and age, where interest or revenge furnished the slightest motive for their execution. Schneider was about to set on foot noyades at Strasburg, similar to those of Nantes, when he was cut short in his career. St. Just and Lebas, displeased, not by his crimes, but by his arrogance, had him arrested, December 20, 1793, and conveyed to Paris, where he was condemned by the revolutionary tribunal, and guillotined, at the age of thirty

seven.

SCHNEPFENTHAL; an institution for education, established by Salzmann, not far from Gotha, at the foot of the Thuringian forest, half a league from the town of Waltershausen. (See Salzmann.)

SCHNORR, Veit Julius von Karolsfeld, professor of historical painting in the royal academy of arts at Munich, one of the first living painters, was born March 26, 1794, at Leipsic, where his father was director of the royal academy of arts. Julius Schnorr early showed indications of talent. In his sixteenth year, he went with his two elder brothers to Vienna, where he supported himself by giving lessons in drawing. Michael Angelo's powerful genius at first chiefly attracted him; but by degrees he became undecided as

to the style which he should adopt, and his internal struggle was so great, that he was on the point of giving up the art in despair, and becoming a mechanic, when his father's counsels encouraged him to go on. He was now attracted by the old German school-a school which has great merits, but was at that time, like many other things, of a peculiarly German character, the subject of exaggerated admiration, on account of the great incentives to patriotism furnished by the circumstances of the time. Schnorr, like many others, now thought that the ideal of painting was to be found in the simplicity and naïveté, but at the same time close adherence to reality, and want of elevation, which characterize this school; but a journey to Italy inspired him with juster ideas. On the way, he sketched the Marriage at Cana, which he finished for a Scotch gentleman. Soon after, the marchese Massimi engaged him to paint scenes from Ariosto, in fresco, in the centre saloon of his villa at Rome. (See Overbeck, Cornelius, and Fresco-painting.) After several interruptions from the Roman fever, Schnorr completed the paintings in 1825. They struck the writer as the finest among the productions of the three painters employed in adorning the villa (Overbeck and Feith are the others), breathing a truly great spirit. In 1827, king Louis of Bavaria called him to Munich, where he is

employed to paint scenes from the Nibelungenlied (q. v.) for the king.

SCHOEN, Martin, one of the earliest and most distinguished German painters, likewise a goldsmith and engraver, was born at Colmbach, and died, in 1486, at Colinar. The Italians called him Buon Martino, or Martino d'Anversa. One hundred and twenty-one of his paintings, chiefly on scriptural subjects, are known to be still in existence. Schoen was remarkable for richness of invention, and for the life of his figures.

SCHOLASTICS. This name was given to teachers of rhetoric among the Romans. In the middle ages, a class of philosophers arose under the name of scholastics, or schoolmen, who taught a peculiar kind of philosophy, which consisted in applying the ancient dialectics to theology, and intimately uniting both. The character of this philosophy varied at different periods, and historians are not agreed as to its origin. Those who regard particularly its theological character make Augustine its founder; others consider it as having commenced in the monophysite disputes of the fifth and sixth centuries. John

Scotus Erigena (q. v.), in the ninth century, is commonly called the first scholastic, without making him, however, the proper founder of that philosophy. He was the great philosopher of his age, and his doctrines were connected with those of the New Platonic system. The name scholastic philosophy is derived from the circumstance that it originated in the schools instituted by and after Charlemagne, for the education of the clergy. (See Schools.) The philosophy therein taught consisted in a collection of logical rules and metaphysical notions, drawn from the Latin commentators on Aristotle, especially the Pseudo-Augustine and Boethius, and from the introduction of Porphyry to the writings of Aristotle. These, under the name of dialectics, composed the theoretical philosophy in general, and were connected with the later Alexandrian ideas of God, and of his nature and relations to the world. The original aim of the scholastic philosophy was only to establish and defend the dogmas of the church. Buhle makes three periods:-The first extends to Roscellinus in 1089, or to the contest of the Realists and Nominalists (q. v.); the second to Albertus Magnus, who died in 1280, when the metaphysical works of Aristotle were more generally known and commented on; the third to the revival of ancient learning, in the middle of the fif teenth century, and the consequent improvement in philosophy. Tiedemann explained the scholastic system as a mode of treating subjects a priori, in which, after a statement of the reasons, on both sides, in the form of syllogisms, the decision was made conformable to the opinions of Aristotle, and the church fathers, and the prevailing theological doctrines. According to him, its history begins with the Franciscan Alexander of Hales (a monastery in Gloucestershire), who first made a considerable use of the writings of Aristotle. He died in 1245. This Alexander of Hales was the first complete commentator on the sentences of Peter of Lombardy; was an instructer at Paris, and received the name of doctor irrefragabilis. He also wrote commentaries on the psychology of Aristotle. He is not an independent thinker, but decides every case on reasons drawn from other theological writers and philosophers. The second period of the schoolmen, according to Tiedemann, begins with Albert the Great (q. v.), who wrote commentaries on the physical and philosophical writings of Aristotle, and on several books of the Scriptures. Still greater is the reputa

tion of his pupil, Thomas Aquinas (q. v. the father of ethics, and a strict ad herent of Aristotle, on whose works he left fifty-two commentaries. His opponent was the Franciscan John Duns (q.v.) Scotus, who is not to be confounded with John Scotus Erigena, before mentioned. Duns Scotus is one of the most hair-splitting logicians, and known by his schoinstic or barbarous Latin. His opposition to Thomas gave rise to the parties cailed Thomists and Scotists (q. v.), whose controversies became peculiarly warm, wher Scotus declared himself opposed to the strict Augustine doctrines of grace de fended by Thomas, and which had mait tained their place in the church for centuries. Another acute scholastic of this age was the Franciscan mystic Bonaventura (q. v.), the pupil of Alexander of Hales; Hervey, a general of the Dominicans; Francis Mairon, a Franciscan, pupi of Duns Scotus, and founder of the Sorboune disputation in Paris, at which the respondent was obliged to defend the controverted positions from six o'clock in the morning to six in the evening, and was only permitted to take a short meal, without leaving the room. The third period of the scholastic philosophy some begin with William of St. Pourçain or Durandus de Sancto Porciano (who died at Meaux, in 1332); though, more properly, the third period of scholastic theology may be considered as commencing with him. From his skill in solving difficult questions, he received the name of doctor resolutissimus. He made a distinction between theological truth, which rests on the authority of the church, and philo sophical truth, which is established, independently of the church, on private conviction, and affirmed that many things were theologically true, and yet phil sophically false. Others begin the third period of the scholastics with William Ocham, or Occam (q. v., who died in 1347), a Franciscan, who revived agai the nearly forgotten disputes of the Notinalists, and distinguished himself as a fearless defender of Christian liberty against the assumptions of the popes One of the last scholastics of this period was Gabriel Biel (who died in 1495, a moderate Nominalist, and active in founding the university of Tübingen in 1477. Tennemann makes four periods of the scholastic philosophy:-I. The first, to the twelfth century, is characterized by blind Realism, and filled by detached philosophical essays on doctrinal theology. To this period belong John Scotus Enge

na, Berengarius of Tours, and his opponent Lanfranc, Damianus, Hildebert of Lavardin, and the great Anselm of Canterbury.-II. Separation of Nominalism and Realism. This period extends from Roscellinus to Albertus Magnus, in the beginning of the thirteenth century, and can boast of Roscellinus, Abelard, Wilham of Champeaux, Hugh de St. Victor, Richard de St. Victor, Gilbert Porretanus, Peter Lombard, Peter of Poitiers, Alanus Insulensis, John of Salisbury.III. Exclusive prevalence of Realism. Complete union of the doctrines of the church and the Aristotelian philosophy, from Albertus Magnus to Occam, in the fourteenth century. To this period belong Alex. of Hales, Vincent of Beauvais, Bonaventura, Thomas Aquinas, Peter Hispanus, Henry Goethals, Rich. Middleton, Duns Scotus, Francis Mairon, St. Pourçain.-IV. A renewal of the contest between Nominalism and Realism, in which the former was victorious, and a separation of theology and philosophy gradually took place. In this period we find William Occam, Marsilius Ingenuus, Robert Holcot, Gabriel Biel, John Buridan, &c. (See Tennemann's Sketch of a History of Philosophy, 4th ed., or 2d rifacimento by Wendt.) On account of the excessive subtilty which prevailed in the scholastic philosophy, the expression scholastic has come to denote the extreme of subtilty. After the reformation and the revival of letters, the scholastic system gradually declined. From that time we find but few distinguished scholastics, as the Spanish Jesuit Suarez, who died in 1617. With lord Bacon and Descartes, a more enlightened and independent philosophy commences.

SCHOLIA; explanations annexed to Greek or Latin authors, by the early grammarians, who taught the practical part of philology. The writer of such scholia is called a scholiast. There are many scholia to Greek authors extant, fewer to Latin. The names of the scholiasts are mostly unknown. Those, however, of Didymus, John Tzetzes, and Eustathius, the famous scholiast of Homer, have been preserved. The two last belong to the twelfth century.

SCHOLL, Maximilian Samson Frederic, a distinguished lawyer, author, bookseller and diplomatist, was born, in 1766, at a village in Nassau-Saarbrück. At fifteen years of age, he entered the university of Strasburg. He afterwards became tutor to the son of a lady named Krook, and accompanied her and her family in their travels

through France to Italy. He returned to Strasburg in 1790, where he devoted himself to law. The reign of terror drove him to Switzerland. After the fall of Robespierre, in 1795, he returned to his country, and, with a man named Decker, established a printing office and bookseller's shop at Basle. After the peace of Luneville, Decker sold his share in the concern, and Schöll removed the establishment to Paris. At the entrance of the allies into Paris, he was placed, by the recommendation of Alexander von Humboldt, in the cabinet of the king of Prussia, and, after the departure of the king, he remained in the Prussian legation. After many diplomatic missions, he was, in 1819, appointed a privy counsellor in Berlin, and received important employments. Of many excellent works, which he has written and published, we will mention his Histoire de la Littérature Romaine (1815, 4 vols.); Histoire de la Littérature Grecque (2d ed., Paris, 1824, 4 vols.); Congrès de Vienne (1815, 6th revision); Annuaire Généalogique; his Recueil de Pièces officielles destinées à détromper les Français (1814-15, 9 vols.); Tableau des Peuples qui habitent l'Europe (latest ed. in 1823). His continuation of Koch's Histoire des Traités de Paix (15 vols.) is valuable. The Archives Politiques (1818-19, 3 vols.) forms a supplement to it.

SCHOMBERG, Frederic Hermann, duke of, a distinguished military officer, a native of Germany, born about 1619, was the son of count Schomberg, by the daughter of lord Dudley. He began his military career under Frederic, prince of Orange, and afterwards went to France, where he became acquainted with the prince of Condé and marshal Turenne. He was then employed in Portugal, and established the independence of that kingdom, obliging the Spaniards to recognise the claims of the house of Braganza. He commanded the French army in Catalonia in 1672, and was afterwards employed in the Netherlands, where he obliged the prince of Orange to raise the siege of Maestricht. For these services, he was rewarded with the staff of a marshal of France in 1675; but on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, marshal Schomberg, who was a Protestant, quitted the French service, and went to Portugal. Being also driven from that country, on account of his religion, he retired to Holland, and subsequently engaged in the service of the elector of Brandenburg. He went to England in 1688, with William III, and, after the revolution,

was created a duke, and obtained a grant of one hundred thousand pounds. He was sent to Ireland, in the following year, to oppose the partisans of James II. Being joined by king William, he was present at the battle of the Boyne, in which he lost his life, July 1, 100, owing, it is said, to an accidental shot from his own troops, as he was passing the river to attack the enemy.

SCHON (German, for beautiful); an adjective which begins innumerable German geographical names.

SCHONBRUNN. (See Vienna.)

SCHONEN, OF SCANIA (Swedish, Skane); a province of Sweden, in the south of Gothland, bounded north by Halland and Smaland, east by Blekingen and the Baltic, south by the Baltic, and west by the Sound, which separates it from Denmark; 4000 square miles; population, 334,744, differing in dialect and manners from the other Swedes. This is the most level, pleasant and fertile part of Sweden, and produces plenty of rye, barley, oats, peas, buckwheat, honey, cumin-seed; likewise pit-coal, chalk, tiles, and pot-ashes. It has several rivers and lakes, all well stored with fish. The principal towns are Malmoe, Lund, Landscron, Helsinborg, and Christianstadt. It is now divided into the governments (line) of Christianstadt and Malmoehus. Schonen formerly belonged to Denmark, but was ceded to Sweden with some of the neighboring districts, by the peace of Roeskild, in 1658.

SCHOODIC, or PASSAMAQUODDY. (See Croix, St.)

SCHOOLMEN. (See Scholastics.)

SCHOOLS. This momentous element of modern society is one of many instances, which show the slow progress of mankind in perfecting the most important parts of the social machine. Schools are of comparatively recent date, and their benefits are mostly confined to Europeans and their descendants. A historical sketch of their progress will be interesting, as showing how slowly and laboriously these institutions, which diffuse sound knowledge in a thousand channels, and irrigate, as it were, the whole field of society, have reached their present degree of improvement, which is far from being satisfactory. In antiquity, education and instruction were entirely a matter of domestic concern. In countries where priestly or royal despotism prevailed, schools were first established for the sons of the great and for the priests. Moses was educated in a priestly school in Egypt, Cyrus at a sem

inary connected with the Persian court; the Indian Bramins imparted instruction in secret schools; in Palestine, those conversant with the Scriptures taught in the schools of the prophets, at later periods in the synagogues, and the schools of the rabbies, where inquiring youths assembled. The advantages of these schools were accessible to few; the means of learning were limited to conversation, reading, committing to memory, and hearing the explanation of sacred books. More was done under the Greeks. As early as 500 B. C., boys and girls, in the Greek cities, learned reading, writing and arithmetic in private schools, as the legislators, except in Sparta, left the education of children entirely to the parents; and what Lycurgus did in Sparta was much more intended for the developement of the phys ical powers than of the intellect. Young persons, who were eager for knowledge. resorted to the instructions of philosophers and sophists, the finest example of which are the Socratic dialogues. The country people remained in great ignorance. The same was the case with the Romans, who, from 300 B. C., had schools for boys in the cities, and from the age of Cæsar, who conferred the rights of citizenship on teachers, possessed the higher institutions of the grammarians. In these, Latin and Greek were taught scientifically, and young men of talent went from the grammarians to the rhetoricians (q. v.L who, like Quinctilian, prepared them, by exercises in declamation, for speaking in public. But a regular school system no where existed with the ancient nations. Schools were institutions confined to particular classes, or were the fruit of private enterprise. The emperor Vespasian was the first who established public professorships of grammar and rhetoric, with fixed salaries attached to them, for the education of young men for the public service; and, 150 Ä. D., Antoninus Pius founded imperial schools in the larger cities of the Roman empire, which may be compared to the German gymnasia. Though there was no systematic cooperation among the various professors, the imperial school at Rome, after the organization which it received, in 370, from Valentinian, resembled rather the German universities. The most celebrated place for scientific culture was Athens, to which students from all parts of Europe resorted, as late as the ninth century, and often led very dissipated lives. In the lower schools of the ancient Romans, the discipline was very severe. The rod was not spared; and

Ovid is not the only one who complained of the severity of an Orbilius. Christianity, by degrees, gave a new turn to education. In the East, it gradually came entirely into the hands of the clergy, and under their superintendence. Schools were instituted in the cities and villages for catechumens (q. v.), and in some capitals, catechetical schools for the education of clergymen, of which that in Alexandria was the most flourishing, from the second to the fourth centuries. From the fifth century, however, these higher establishments seem to have been discontinued, and the episcopal or cathedral schools to have taken their place, in which the young men, intended for the clerical profession, learned, besides theology, the seven liberal arts-grammar, logic, rhetoric (these three made the trivium), arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music (quadrivium), from the Encyclopædia of the African Marcianus Capella, a poor compendium, which appeared at Rome in 470, and which remained for upwards of 1000 years the common text-book in the schools of Europe. The imperial schools declined, and became extinct, because, in the confusion which followed the irruption of the barbarians, the salaries of the professors were not paid; and the cathedral schools and parochial schools for boys and young men of all classes in the cities, were established, in which the learning of reading and writing was followed by the study of the trivium, which had become popular; hence they received, at a later time, the name of trivial schools. These schools, after the sixth century, were surpassed in importance by the conventual schools, which, at first, were only seminaries to prepare persons for the monastic life, but were soon resorted to by laymen. The Benedictine conventsthose links between the civilization of ancient and modern times-flourished in Ireland, England, France and Germany, from the sixth to the eleventh century, and were the chief seats of modern European civilization. The discipline was severe and monkish; but the instruction was generally better than in other institutions, partly on account of the many distinguished literary men who embraced the monastic life, partly on account of the peculiar opportunies which they had to form considerable libraries, in consequence of the constant communications among the various convents, and the pleasure which the inmates of these took in copying; partly on account of the esprit de corps of the order which delighted in being able to show distinguished members or eminent

men, who had been educated in its schools. There were several priests or monks, whose reputation was such as to attract pupils from great distances. The conventual schools at Armagh and Clogher, Canterbury, York and Westminster, at Tours, Rheims, Clermont, Paris, at Salzburg, of St. Emmeran at Ratisbon, Hersfeld Corvey, Fulda, Hirschau and St. Blasius on the Schwarzwald, &c., were particularly famous. The scholars who proceeded from them gave to the scholastic philosophy (q. v.) its character and name, the teachers in the conventual schools being called scholastici. These schools rivalled the episcopal and cathedral schools, yet were always directed more to the advantage of the priesthood than to purposes of general instruction, which was owing to a variety of causes springing from the then existing state of things. Charlemagne had in view a system of national instruction, when he issued, in 789, his decree for the improvement of the schools of his empire. Not only every bishop's see and every convent, but every parish, was to have its school, the two former for the instruction of clergymen and public officers, the latter for the lower classes. At his court, Charlemagne established an academy of distinguished scholars, to whom he himself resorted for instruction, and whom he employed to educate his children, and capable boys belonging to the nobility and other classes, in the court school (schola palatii). Alcuinus (q. v.) was made rector of these two schools, which accompanied the court in its changes of residence. The ladies of his court also partook in the benefits of instruction, and some nunneries, in their institutions for female education, rivalled the seminaries in the monasteries. The ladies learned Latin, which was then the common medium of communication between persons of different countries, as French is at present. Charlemagne took upon himself the superintendence of the schools in his empire, had reports sent to him, made examinations, and delivered addresses to the pupils of the school at his court. These schools often enabled him to discover the talents of young men, whom he appointed to high offices in the church or the state. It is one of the noblest traits in his character, that, in that age of gross ignorance, he labored with zeal for the instruction of the nations under his sway.-See a short article entitled Charlemagne's Life in Private and at Court, in the third volume of Raumer's Historical Pocket Book (Leipsic, 1832).-When the clergy of