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the cathedrals, in the ninth century, of the cathedral and conventual schools, adopted the canonical life, the cathedral and they rapidly declined. The new inschools originated, which approached, in stitutions which had grown up were necharacter, to the trivial schools, so called, cessary to form new teachers and to whilst the episcopal schools remained revive the taste for science. But even seminaries for the clerical order, or for these became subject to undue clerical inparticular professions, and at a later pe- fluence, as, since the beginning of the thirriod became transformed into universities. teenth century, the mendicant monks not Mayence, Treves, Cologne, Liege, Utrecht, only connected popular schools with their Bremen, Hildesheim, had, in the tenth convents, and undertook the education of century, celebrated cathedral schools. the children in the cities, but also obThe encouragement which the higher tained entrance into the universities as authorities had afforded them, however, teachers, where they labored to augment was soon discontinued. Charlemagne's the importance of their various orders and decrees were forgotten during the disputes the power of the pope. Thus the state of his grandsons about the government, of the schools, in the middle ages, was by under whom, also, the above-mentioned no means so flourishing as might have court-school was abandoned; and his great been expected from the activity of former creation declined as the school establish- centuries and the institutions of Charlement of the great Alfred, in England, magne. Dictating took the place of icewhich was begun with equal zeal, and on turing even in the higher schools; mere an equal scale, in the ninth century, was exercises of memory held the place of crudestroyed by the invasions of the Danes, dition; the dead letter predominated, and though Edward the Confessor endeavored an intelligent investigation of the subjects to restore it. In the mean time, the school studied was little practised. The pupus of the rabbis, among the Jews in Syria, of the Latin or trivial schools wasted alNorthern Africa, and even in Europe most all their time in copying the manu(Jewish academies existed in the seventh als. In the lower parish schools, the century, at Lunel in France, and, in the monks would not even permit the scholtenth and eleventh centuries, at Cordova, ars to learn to write; being desirous to in Spain), preserved the remains of an- confine the art, which was highly lueracient learning; and the Arabian schools tive and important before the invention established in the ninth century in the of printing, to the clergy (it was called Oriental and African caliphates, and in the the ars clericalis); and the privilege of Moorish kingdoms in Spain, exhibited a establishing writing schools for the chil freer spirit and better taste. From them a dren of citizens could not be obtained by knowledge of the mathematical and med- the magistrates but by special agreement ical sciences was first communicated to with the clergy. But at length, with the the south of Christian Europe. In Italy, increasing power of the cities (q. v., the where, after the barbarism introduced by citizens became more independent, and the Goths and Lombards, king Lothaire the magistrates themselves began to take had been the first to establish schools, in care of the instruction of youth, which the ninth century, for the large cities, as had been so much neglected by the clerwell as in Spain and France, the influ- gy, and to establish schools, in which ence of Arabic civilization became ob- reading, writing and the trivium were servable, in the institution of schools for taught. For these, as well as for the qualifying men for the different profes- cathedral and parish schools (the canons sions. At Salerno (q. v.), Montpellier and and parish priests having ceased to orSeville, Arabic physicians taught; and the cupy themselves with the instruction of works of the Saracens on natural history youth), itinerant monks and students were and mathematics were sought for even by taken as teachers. This gave rise to a Christian scholars. The developement of separate class of teachers, which indeed the papal canon law gave occasion to the belonged to the clerical order, then in the foundation of law schools, among which exclusive possession of learning, but rethose of Bologna and Lyous acquired the sembled the corporations of mechanics in greatest reputation. The academical priv- its regular gradations, and in the unsetileges, which the former of these two re- tled life of its members, who wandered ceived, in 1158, from the emperor Fred- from place to place much to the detriment eric I, became the foundation of the con- of their morals. The school-masters were stitution of the continental universities engaged by the corporation of cities, and which originated in the twelfth and thir- the parish ministers were liable to be d teenth centuries. The inactivity and lux- missed on a year or three months' warnury of the clergy had led to the neglecting, and were obliged to employ assist

ants, proportioned to the number of their pupils, and to pay them out of their own salaries. These assistant teachers (locati, because they were hired; stampuales, because they gave elementary instruction) were subject, as well as the head masters, to the parish ministers, who used them as writers and church servants. Sometimes the school-masters, who taught Latin, were called rectors; the assistant teachers, who taught singing, reading, and gave religious instruction (the latter consisting in making their pupils commit to memory the creed, the ten commandments, prayers and psalms), were called cantors. From this division originated, in some countries, for instance in Germany, the division of Latin and German schools, which were, however, most generally united. The elder pupils of the highest class frequently travelled from one school to another, pretending to detect hidden treasures, and practising various mummeries and fooleries; hence they were sometimes called histriones (because they formed the first companies of actors, as, in France, the Jongleurs and Gaillards), sometimes vacantivi ( i. e. idlers). Generally they carried with them younger pupils, who were their slaves, to all intents and purposes, and had to procure them support, by begging and stealing, if there was no other way, and retained for themselves only such portion of their acquisitions as their tyrants were willing to let them enjoy. In the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, these bands of vagrants, among whom there were sometimes vacantivi thirty years old, who were yet unable to construe a Latin author, were most numerous in Germany. As students, they were allowed to wear swords, and thus were frequently tempted to disturb the public peace. When they stopped to pursue their studies in a school, they found. lodgings in the school-rooms, or about the churches, and lived upon the charity of the citizens. If there were several schools in one place, disputes often occurred between the pupils, which were decided by arms, according to the fashion of the middle ages. As late as the beginning of the sixteenth century, Luther complained that such vagrants received appointments as teachers, because, generally, these vacantivi, who had hardly seen a university, were the only persons who could be hired as school-masters, since the more learned youths were ambitious of clerical benefices and academical professorships. Unique in its kind, in the history of the schools of this period, was

the pious fraternity of the Jeronymites. They consisted of clergymen and laymen, who lived together, occupied partly with mechanical arts, partly with the instruction of girls and boys, to whom they taught reading, writing, and useful arts. For boys of talent and diligence there were Latin classes. On the model of these schools, others were established in the Netherlands, on the Rhine, and in Northern Germany. These soon came into communication with the Greeks who had fled to Italy; and thus the study of the classics became more cultivated. Through the efforts of men like Thomas a Kempis, Hegius, Erasmus, Agricola, Reuchlin and Melanchthon, a liberal study of the remains of classic antiquity was commenced. Much was done, in and after the last half of the fourteenth century, to promote this object by Italian courts and universities, through the instrumentality of learned Greeks, and of the Platonic academy at Florence, and towards the end of the fifteenth century, through the learned Rhenish society, established by Conrad Celtes. The result, at first, was only an intellectual luxury for the great and the learned; yet many skilful teachers proceeded from Basle, Tűbingen, Heidelberg and Wittenberg, which, after the time of Luther and Melanchthon, became the head-quarters of instruction for Germany. In all countries where the reformation became general, it had a decided influence upon the schools. It even had a considerable influence in several Catholic countries; but its effects were most decided in Germany. According to the advice of the reformers in that country, who, in 1529, furnished a great example of the care which government should bestow on the schools by the visitations which they made of the schools in the electorate of Saxony, the corporations of cities founded gymnasia and lyceums with permanent teachers. The property of the convents, and of the church in general, which had been confiscated by the governments, was, in most cases, applied to the use of schools. The number of these institutions was now much increased, and their character elevated, and scientific school-masters were soon formed. The newly invented art of printing assisted greatly in this work of improvement. Only the conventual cathedral and trivial schools of the Catholics remained restricted to the narrow limits of the seven liberal arts. Schools for girls were founded, and in the villages instructers were appointed to teach the catechism. Whilst

schools were thus acquiring a systematic character in the sixteenth century, and the classical languages were even taught in the smaller towns, the Jesuit schools arose towards the end of this century among the Catholics. They soon obtained, by their better taste and more scientific spirit, a superiority over the old Catholic schools. But, though they have exercised a great influence, as has been stated in the article Jesuits, to which we must refer our readers, they were yet more calculated for the children of the wealthy, or those of uncommon talent among the poorer classes, than for the general education of the people. In Spain and Italy, their schools were long the best; in Hungary and Poland, they were the only ones excepting the conventual schools and the colleges of the Piarists (q. v.); and even in America and Asia, they contributed zealously, by their missions, to the diffusion of European civilization. But a variety of circumstances contributed to produce degeneracy in these latter schools as well as in those of the Protestants. The former became again confined to a fixed routine; the latter passed from the strictness of the conventual schools to licentiousness, through the influence of the privileged universities. To this was added, in Germany, the thirty years' war, in which fanaticism on both sides destroyed what had been judiciously established. Yet, about this time, some great men distinguished themselves as writers on education, as lord Bacon (q. v.), and the exiled bishop of the Moravians, Amos Comenius. (q. v.)

Considerable influence was exerted upon the system of education, towards the end of the seventeenth century, by the principles of Pietism and Quietism (q. v.), established by Fénélon and Spener, which was the basis of the instructions of A. H. Franke. (q. v.) Instructers in his spirit spread themselves, in the first half of the eighteenth century, from Halle over the whole of Northern Germany. Yet the lower schools were bad in comparison to the higher; and in these, Latin and Greek seem to have been the only thing considered essential. The idea of an education adapted to the nature and general destination of man, suggested by Bacon and Moutaigne, received, about this time, a more complete developement from Locke and Rousseau ; and the Philanthropinisin* of Basedow and his friends in

The system of Philanthropinism was directed against the prevailing faults, both of school instruction and of domestic education, against the

troduced it, in the second half of the eighteenth century, into Germany. Schools were now instituted, in which, besides languages and history, natural history, technology, civil arithmetic, &c., were taught. They held an intermediate place between the primary schools and the gymnasia. In 1807 and 1808, the Bavarian government established, besides the gymnasia for classical education, seminaries, called Real-Instituten, where young persons who intend to become merchants, apothecaries, miners, manufacturers, artists, &c. are instructed in that knowledge which is of most general utility-in history, religion, modern languages, mathematics, and the natural sciences. The trivial schools, which continued to exist, both in the larger and smaller towns, were changed, after the end of the eighteenth century. into public schools, both common and high, and many schools were established for paupers.

In fact, every where in Protestant Germany, and in some other countries, effectual steps were taken for the advancement of school instruction; but the Catholic countries took little part in this advancement. The Catholic governments trusted implicitly to the Jesuits. Piarists, Ursulines, and some other orders, unconcerned whether the instruction which they afforded did or did not correspond to the demands of the time. By the abolition of the Jesuits in 1773, moreover, a chasm was produced, which the schools of the Piarists, mostly of the triial kind, were unable immediately to supply. Austria felt this abolition less than other Catholic countries, on account of her normal schools for the lower orders. intended to serve as a pattern for au the common schools in the empire. Her school system, however, was far from perfect. Under the present emperor, professorships of pedagogics (for the instruction of teachers) have been established in the universities and episcopal seminaries. Many gymnasia, common schools, Sunday schools, &c., have likewise been instituted in Austria. The normal schools were imitated by most of the Catholic states of Germany. Italy, Portugal and

tyranny of the rod, the stiffness of the ord nary discipline, the inconvenient and prejudic.al nature of children's dress, the want of proper body exercise, the system of loading the memory wildout exercising the active faculties, &c. The object was to develope the energies of children in a more natural way, and with less constraint and hardship. Several institutions, called Philanthrepins, were established, of which that of Salzmann (q. v.) was the only one which survived to the nineteenth century.

Spain continued inactive, as they had een for a long series of years: they left <ruction to the clergy and to chance. They have only episcopal seminaries the Piarist and conventual schools. The institutions of Leopold, in Tuscany, popular education, after the Austrian odel, were disturbed by the wars of the solution. The French had not time to o a great deal for the education of the ople; and, in fact, education had not ade any great advances among them Ives; and when, in Spain and Italy, the al rulers again took possession of the untry, they considered education danrous, as productive of a revolutionary rit. The Jesuits, since their revival, re as yet been too unimportant to profre any great effect. In those countries Europe where they have exerted an fluence on instruction of late, it has en an injurious influence, intended to unteract the spirit of the time.

In France, much remains to be done education. Before the revolution, ere were, besides the episcopal seminaes and conventual schools, lyceums and vileges in the cities, where young pers were prepared, under a system of onastic discipline, for the higher semiaries. The government did nothing for education of the people at large, and he clergy, though possessing so large a portion of all the property in France, d having the instruction of the people der their especial care, left them in minable ignorance; whence the horrid itrages that disfigured the early part of revolution. Some elementary schools re supported, here and there, by reZous orders, or private persons; but the struction was scanty, and in all the intutions of education was behind the 2. During the revolution, the schools sere declared to be under the care of the ate. It was not to be expected that a od plan could be adopted immediately. polytechnic school (q. v.), however, was excellently arranged. Napoleon stablished several military schools, and thers for instruction in trades and arts, tid an imperial university was created, to ave the supreme direction of instruction France. But the plan was on a miliprinciple, and as little fitted to prote the true purposes of education as monastic narrowness of former ages. Arademies (schools for the different proons) and lyceums, on an entirely milry plan, were introduced. The " dary schools" actually went into operaon in but very few places, and the "pri22

VOL. XI.

sec

mary schools" (elementary and village schools) hardly any where. The instruction in private establishments was subjected to much restriction, except in regard to mathematics and the natural sciences. The religious instruction was to be founded on the "Catechism of the Empire." This was the state in which the Bourbons found the schools in France. Changes were made by them, but not for the better. The clergy labored with them to restore a state of things which had long gone by. In 1816, elementary schools on the Lancasterian principle were introduced, which would have become a great blessing to the country; but the royalists and clergy, after a while, procured their abolition. The lower classes receive very little instruction in France, and there cannot be much doubt that a third part of the whole population of that country which considers itself the most civilized on earth, grows up without education. The whole number of individuals, subject to the conscription in 1830, was 294,975. Of these, 121,079 could read and write; 12,801 could only read; 153,635 could neither read nor write: in respect to 7460, it could not be ascertained what was the extent of their attainments.* Dupin, in his work, cited below, page 71, says, that "it must be acknowledged that there are no parts of Europe, except the Pyrenæan peninsula, Turkey, the south of Italy, Greece and Russia, in which education is in a more backward state than in France." For further information we refer our readers to an article, “The State of Education in France," in the Quarterly Journal of Education for July and October, 1831, containing the answers given by the Société pour la Propagation des Connaissances Scientifiques et Industrielles to questions put by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in

M.

* The law of September 14, 1791, enacted that a system of instruction for all the people should be organized, which should be gratuitous with respect to those kinds of knowledge which are indispensable for all classes. But this law was never carried into effect. The ordinance of April, 1816, declared that every commune should be bound to provide primary instruction for all the children of the commune, giving this instruction gratuitously to indigent children. But the means of carrying this into effect have been wanting, the majority of the communes being unable to provide a salary for a primary instructer. It would seem indispensable that the state or the departments should form a common fund to pay, or to assist in paying, the teachers in the poorest communes. A law on this subject is of urgent necessity.

upwards of $60,000, supporting eighty schools, with 7430 pupils; besides which there are 155 private schools in the city, with 4018 pupils, making a total of 235 schools, and 11,448 pupils, in a population of less than 62,000 souls. In Massachusetts, the laws require that every town or district, containing fifty families, shall be provided with a school or schools, equivalent in time to six months for one school in a year; if containing 100 families, twelve months; 150 families, eighteen months; and the towns are required to raise the sums of money necessary for the support of the schools in the same manner as other town taxes. The state of Connecticut has a fund, derived from the sale of lands in Ohio, of $1,882,261, the income of which (upwards of $72,000) is appropriated to the support of common free schools. The number of children between four and sixteen, in 1828, was 84,899. The great principle on which the system is founded, is, that elementary education should be so free as to exclude none, and the schools so numerous as to be within the reach of all, at the same time that their management should be principally intrusted to the people themselves, in small districts, so as to excite and sustain a general interest among all classes. The tax is on property, and thus the poorer classes are saved from a burden which might otherwise be too great for them, at the same time that they pay enough to render then desirous of securing the benefit of the schools; and the rich are glad to secure the most effectual protection for order and property, in the general intelligence and morality of the people. (See the valuable paper of professor Ticknor, in the English Quarterly Journal of Education, No. IV, also reprinted in the National Gazette, Philadelphia, Jan. 17, 1832.) For the population of New England, consisting of less than 2,000,000, there are between 10,000 and 12,000 schools, 150 academies, and 11 colleges, besides great numbers of private schools and boarding schools. We have given an account of the state of schools in New York, in the article New York, division Public Instruction (vol. ix, p. 593). New Jersey has a school fund of $245,404, the income of which, with a tax of per cent. on the capital stock of the banks, is distributed, in small sums, to towns which will raise an equal sum for the support of schools. In Pennsylvania, little has been done for common education. In the Report of the Society for the Promotion of Public Schools

(April, 1831), it is stated that, during the preceding year, the number of children between the ages of five and fifteen, was 400,000, of which there were not 150,000 in all the schools in the state. There is no legislative provision for the support of schools. In Delaware, there is a school fund, the income of which is distributed to such towns as will raise a sum equa to that which they receive; and, in Mary land, some attempts have been made to establish a general system of primary education; but it has been only partially accomplished. The New England sys tem of free schools has been introduces into Ohio (March, 1831); and, in Indiana the constitution makes it the duty of the legislature to provide, by law, for a general system of education, in which tuition shall be given gratis. Similar provisions have been made in Illinois; and in Kentucky attempts have recently been made to effect the same purpose. But in the Southern and Western States generally, there is no legislative provision for the establishment of common schools, on the plan of those of New England. The Sunday schools in the U. States are, in a great measure, intended for religious it struction, and are therefore composed of the pupils of the day schools. Further information on this subject may be found in the American Annals (Journal) of Education (1826, seq.), various numbers of the North American Review, and American Almanac (vols. ii and iii).

In Canada, education is, generally speaking, in a very low state, which is greatly owing to the population being much scattered.

In the West Indies, the schools, though improving in some parts, as in Cuba, must be subjected to very different influences before they can reach any thing like pe fection; and in South America the peop labor under the immense disadvantage o having been formerly under the Spanis and Portuguese governments, which di nothing for the education even of thi European subjects; to which must be added that the population is scattered, and that they are under the exclusive sway of the Catholic clergy. Comin96% schools have been established, of late, several colonies of Europe (e. g. at th cape of Good Hope), and several schools. on the plan of mutual instruction, in the East Indies. Independent of the influence of European civilization, schools of different degrees are to be found in the East Indies, China, Japan, and the other empires of Eastern Asia, in which despos

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