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but, before they were completed, he died, in 1791. His poems, which contain much inflated and unpolished matter,-interspersed, however, with many flashes of genius, were published at Frankfort on the Maine, in 1787, 2 vols.; another edition in 3 vols., 12mo., at the same place, with a life of him; and several short pieces in prose. His Miscellaneous Works (Zurich, 1812, 2 vols.), were published by his son.

SCHULTENS, Albert, a celebrated Orientalist, born at Groningen, in 1686, studied theology and Arabic at that place, at Leyden and Utrecht, became a preacher in 1711, professor of the Oriental languages in 1713, and in 1717, university preacher at Franeker. His chief works, Origines Hebræa, and Institutiones ad Fundamenta Lingua Hebraicæ (1737), had an important influence on the study of the eastern languages.--His son John Jacob (17161778) was the author of several learned dissertations and treatises.-Henry Albert, son of the latter, born at Herborn, in 1749, was educated at Leyden, where he studied Arabic and Hebrew, and afterwards became a commoner in Wadham college, Oxford, and received the degree of master of arts there. On his return to Holland, he was chosen professor of the Oriental languages at Amsterdam, where he resided until the death of his father, whom he afterwards succeeded at Leyden. He died in 1793. Besides his Arabian Anthology(1772), he published an edition of Pilpay's Fables, and a supplement to the Bibliothèque Orientale of D'Herbelot.

SCHUMLA. (See Choumla.)

SCHUYLER, Philip, a distinguished American revolutionary general, was horn at Albany, New York, in 1731, of an ancient and respectable family. He served as an officer in the war which commenced at lake George in 1775. When quite young, he became a member of the New York legislature, and was eminent for his intelligence and influence. To him and governor Clinton, it was chiefly owing that the province made an early and decided resistance to those British measures which terminated in the independence of the colonies. When the revolution commenced, he was appointed, June 19, 1775, a major-general, and was directed to proceed immediately from New York to Ticonderoga, to secure the lakes, and make preparations for entering Canada. Being taken sick in September, the command devolved upon Montgomery. On his recovery, he devoted him

self zealously to the management of the affairs in the northern departments. He gave much of his attention to the superintendence of the Indian concerns. On the approach of Burgoyne, in 1777, he made every exertion to obstruct his progress; but the evacuation of Ticonderoga by St. Clair occasioning unreasonable jealousies in regard to Schuyler, in New England, he was superseded by general Gates, in August; and an inquiry was directed by congress to be made into his conduct. He was afterwards, though not in the regular service, very useful to his country in the military transactions of New York. He was a member of the old congress; and when the present government of the U. States commenced its operation in 1789, he was appointed a senator in the national legislature. He was chosen a second time, in 1797, to the same station. In the senate of New York, he contributed, probably, more than any other man, to the code of laws adopted by the state. He died at his seat near Albany, Nov. 18, 1804, in the 73d year of his age. He possessed great strength of mind and purity of intention. In the contrivance of plans of publie utility, he was wise and circumspect, and in their execution, enterprising and persevering. In his deportment, he was dignified, but courteous. He was a pleas ing and instructive companion, and. all the functions of private life, was highly exemplary.

SCHUYLKILL, a river of Pennsylvania, rises in Lucerne county, runs south-east, and unites with the Delaware, six miles below Philadelphia. It is 140 miles long. and navigable for boats 90 miles. The Tulpehocken, a navigable stream, flows into the Schuylkill a little above the town of Reading. There are falls on the river five miles above Philadelphia, and others near Norristown. A part of the valuabie coal called anthracite, which is now so much used in Philadelphia, and exported thence to all the northern cities, is obtained from mines situated on the Schuylkill.

SCHWABACH, Articles of: a confession of faith, drawn up by Luther, for the princes and cities assembled, in October, 1529, at Schwabach. The cities of South Germany, inclining to the Swiss doctrine, refused to subscribe the above articles, on account of the doctrine of the pres ence of Christ in the eucharist, which strongly expressed in them by Luther These articles, adopted by the Smelcal die league (q. v.), became thus a cinef

obstacle to a union between the party of Luther and Zuinglius.

SCHWABENSPIEGEL (i. e. Mirror of the Suabians); a collection of legal precepts and customs in Upper Germany, made probably between 1268 and 1282, by an unknown monk. It does not exist in its original form, as it was changed in many countries. It never acquired the same authority as the Sachsenspiegel (q. v.). It went out of use in the 15th and 16th centuries. It is best printed in Senkenberg's Corp. Jur. Germ.

SCHWARTZ, Berthold, born in the first half of the 14th century, was a Franciscan friar of Friburg, or, according to some, a monk of Cologne, and has been regarded as the inventor of gunpowder and fire-arms. He is said to have been mixing together the ingredients of gunpowder, viz. nitre, sulphur and charcoal, -in an iron mortar, in the prosecution of some alchemical researches, when the composition exploded, from an accidental spark occasioned by the collision of the pestle and mortar. The former being driven forcibly to a distance, Berthold thence conceived the idea of forming pieces of artillery. Such is the story commonly told of the invention of gunpowder, said to have occurred in the carly part of the 14th century. There is, however, much discrepancy in the accounts of this discovery; and it is certain that Roger Bacon (q. v.), who died in 1292, was acquainted with an inflammable composition similar to gunpowder, the knowledge of which Europeans appear to have derived from the Orientals. (See Gunpowder.)

SCHWARTZBURG, or SCHWARZBURG; a Sovereign principality of Germany, in the interior of Thuringia, and bounded by Saxe-Gotha and the Prussian province of Erfurt. The house is very ancient, and is divided into two lines, SchwartzburgSondershausen, and Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt. In the diet, they have, with Oldenburg and Anhalt, one vote (15th), and in the plenum a vote each. The territories of both are hilly, interspersed with fertile valleys. The forests are extensive, and contain mines of iron, alum and cobalt; also quarries of marble, freestone and slate. The religion is Lutheran.

Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt lies further to the south, and borders on the grandduchy of Saxe-Weimar. Rudolstadt (4000 inhabitants) is the chief town, and residence of the prince. The other principal towns are Frankenhausen and

Ilmstadt. Population, 58,000; square miles, 400; revenue, 136,500 dollars; debt, 113,000. Rudolstadt has estates, but Sondershausen is an absolute government.

Schwartzburg-Sondershausen

is almost surrounded by the Prussian province of Saxony. Sondershausen (3321 inhabitants) is the chief town, and residence of the prince. The other principal towns are Arnstadt, Breitenbach, and Graussen. Population, 48,106; square miles, 350; revenue, $170,000; debt, the

same.

SCHWARTZENBERG, Charles Philip, prince of, Austrian field-marshal, born at Vienna, in 1771, served in the early wars of the French revolution, in which he distinguished himself on several occasions. In 1805, he was at the head of a division under general Mack, and at Ulm commanded the right wing of the Austrian forces. After the fortune of the day was decided, he forced his way through the enemy at the head of a body of cavalry. The battle of Austerlitz, at which he was present, was fought against his advice, before Bennigsen and the archduke Charles had come up. In 1808, Schwartzenberg was ambassador to the Russian court; and, in 1809, commanded the rear-guard after the battle of Wagram. In the campaign of 1812, he commanded the Austrian auxiliary corps of 30,000 men, in Galicia,-which, however, remained almost entirely inactive,—and at the close of the year, he received the marshal's staff. In 1813 he was appointed to command the army of observation in Bohemia; and after the declaration of war by Austria, prince Schwartzenberg was named generalissimo of the allied forces. (See Dresden, RussianGerman War, and Leipsic, Battle of.) After Napoleon's return from Elba, he commanded the allied forces on the Upper Rhine; but the contest was decided at Waterloo (q. v.), without his participation. The prince died in 1820. Many of his military dispositions have been censured; and Napoleon declared that he could not command 6000 men.-See Prokesch, Memoirs of Prince Schwartzenberg (in German, Vienna, 1823).

SCHWARZ, or SCHWARTZ (German, black); an adjective which begins a great number of German geographical names.

SCHWARZWALD. (See Black Forest.) SCHWEIGHÄUSER, John, one of the most distinguished German philologists, born at Strasburg, in 1742, became professor of the Greek and Oriental languages in that place in 1778. He published

valuable editions of Polybius, Athenæus, Arrian, Epictetus, &c., and especially of Herodotus (6 vols., 1816). His academical writings were published in 1807 (2 vols.), and in 1824 appeared his Lexicon Herodoteum (2 vols.). He died in 1830.

SCHWEITZ, OF SCHWYTZ; a canton of Switzerland, bounded N. W. and N. by Zug and Zürich, E. by Glarus, S. by Uri, and W. by Underwalden and Lucerne; population, 36,040, nearly all Germans, and Catholics; square miles, 336. It is surrounded by Alpine mountains, between which are a few valleys, tolerably fertile. The chief mountains are Mytten, 6300 feet high; Righi, 6000; and Pragel, 5500. The soil is better adapted to pasturage than tillage, and the wealth of the inhabitants consists in cattle. It was here that, in the beginning of the 14th century, the standard of Swiss liberty was first erected; and this petty canton had the honor of giving its name to the confederation. (See Switzerland.) The capital of the canton, of the same name, two miles from lake Lowerz, is situated in a fertile valley, between the mountains of Mytten and Righi; population, 5000.

SCHWERIN. (See Mecklenburg-Schwerin.)

SCHWERIN, Kurt Christopher, count, Prussian field-marshal, was born in 1684, in Swedish Pomerania, and, after having served in the Dutch armies, entered the Prussian service in 1720, with the rank of major-general. Frederic II, who ascended the throne in 1740, esteemed him very highly, created him field-marshal, and count, and gave him the command of his forces in the Austrian succession war (1741). In 1756, he was again placed in command of one of the Prussian armies, and fell at the head of his troops, before Prague, in 1757. (See Seven Years' War; consult also Frederic's Histoire de mon Temps.)

SCILLY ISLANDS; a group of islands, situated at the western extremity of the English channel, about thirty miles westward of the Land's End, and belonging to the county of Cornwall. The islands are numerous; but six only of them are inhabited. The views from them are picturesque. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in agriculture, in fishing, and in the manufacture of kelp. The crops principally raised are barley, pease and oats, with a small proportion of wheat. The number of inhabitants in all the islands is about 2000, of which St. Mary's, the largest, and best, cultivated of the whole group, contains 1270.

Scio (Chios, called by the Turks Saki-Adassi), one of the largest and richest islands of the Grecian archipelago, contains 392 square miles. It is separated from the continent of Asia on the east by a narrow strait (Stretto di Capo bianco), and has a healthy climate. But little attention is paid to raising grain or keeping cattle, but it produces abundantly silk, cotton, turpentine, marble, fruits, and particularly wine (Chian wine was celebrated even in antiquity), oranges, lemons and mastic (to the amount of eighty tons a year, valued at 800,000 piasters). The beauty of the females is celebrated. On this island, remains of ancient art are still to be seen; among others, the school of Homer, the fountains of Helen, the ruins of Delphinium, Cardamissa, and a temple of Neptune. The chief city, of the same name, on the eastern coast of the island, has a harbor, spacious, but very difficult of access, and about 20,000 inhabitants. The population of the whole island was estimated, before the Greek revolution, at upwards of 120,000; mostly Greeks. When Greece revolted, in 1821, the Sciots attempted to drive away the Turkish garrison. The Turks threw themselves into the citadel, and continued the contest with the inhabitants till 1822, when a Turkish fleet landed, under the command of the capudan pacha, and a massacre began, in which, after many thousands had fallen in battle, from April 14 to 20, 40,000 persons, without distinction of age or sex, were put to the sword, and some of them cruelly tortured. The fugitives escaped to the mountain fastnesses or to the opposite continent, or, in Greek vessels, to the other islands. At length the Greek fleet attacked the Turks, and destroyed several of their vessels with fire-ships. The capudan pacha was obliged to retreat, half consumed, from his ship lying in flames, and to land upon the shore, where he had, a short time before, murdered the innocent without compunction, and where he now perished in the greatest tortures. But the Greeks were not strong enough to occupy the island, and the vengeance of the Turks now assailed the mastic villages, the people of which had remained quiet during the revolution. June 19, 182, these villages were burnt, and 30,000 Christians murdered or sold into slavery. In March, 1823, the population of the island was only 16,000. Scio from that time has remained under the dominion of the Turks. Fabvier's attempt to reconquer Scio, in 1827, failed. A part of

the unhappy Sciots fled to the ships of the French admiral De Rigny.-Before the devastation of Scio, there was a school in its chief city, and it was the see of a Greek and Roman bishop. It has been lately reported that the sultan had ordered the restoration of the property and estates of the Sciots without reservation. In 1770, a naval engagement took place between the Russians and Turks, between this island and Tschesme, which lies on the opposite coast of Natolia; a part of the Turkish fleet was burned by the Rus

sians.

SCIOTO; a river of Ohio, the second in size of those which have their whole courses in this state. Its general course is south; its length about 170 miles; and it flows into the Ohio river by a mouth 150 yards wide, between Portsmouth and Alexandria. It is navigable for boats about 130 miles, and is connected with the Sandusky by a portage four miles long. The country watered by this river is known by the name of the Scioto country, and is remarkably fertile. On the eastern bank, about five miles above Columbus, is an almost inexhaustible quarry of marble, which receives a good polish, and is of a beautiful gray color.

SCIPIO AFRICANUS (the elder), Publius Cornelius. The Cornelian family was rich in great men, among whom the conqueror of the formidable Hannibal is particularly distinguished. His father, who bore the same name, fought without success, but not without honor, against the Carthaginians, in the beginning of the second Punic war. In the bloody engagement on the river Ticinus, in Upper Italy, the young Scipio, hardly sixteen years old, took an active part, and is said to have saved the life of his wounded father. From the still more fatal battle of Cannæ (B. C. 216), he escaped with the remains of the conquered army. The wreck of the cavalry, having assembled at Canubium, chose him for their_commander, and he led them back to Rome. Here his remarkable firmness induced a company of young men of distinction, who had resolved to flee from Italy in despair, to remain and defend their country. With his drawn sword he stepped boldly among them, and threatened to kill whoever should refuse to take the oath that he proposed. Astounded by his boldness, they did as he desired, and aided to save Rome. Such spirit met with public honor. At the age of twenty, he was made curule edile, and, a few years after, was appointed proconsul in Spain. Here

he overcame the enemy, not merely by his courage and conduct, but also by his magnanimity and kindness. His first successful enterprise of importance was the conquest of New Carthage. With great boldness, he attacked the city on the side washed by the sea, which was almost defenceless, and easiest to be surmounted, with 500 of the most courageous soldiers, who waded through the low water at ebb tide, took one of the gates by storm, and, while the troops who were to assail the city on the land side were storming other parts, the enemy were so terrified that they hastened into the castle, and quickly surrendered this hold also. The Africans who were taken he sold for slaves; the Spaniards received their liberty. This treatment made a deep impression on the latter, and they separated from the Carthaginians. He gained still more esteem among the warlike Celtiberians, by restoring the beautiful bride of the young prince Allucius, who was brought to him as a prisoner, and who had made a deep impression on his heart, as soon as he heard of her being betrothed to the prince. The ransom, which her overjoyed parents urged upon the conqueror, he bestowed upon the youthful pair. Allucius, as a token of his gratitude, immediately entered the Roman service with a body of chosen troops, and rendered important service. The next year, Scipio totally defeated Asdrubal, Hannibal's brother, notwithstanding his advantageous position, and compelled him to retreat to the Pyrenees. Thus the Carthaginians lost still more adherents in Spain. A near relative of Masinissa, king of Numidia, who was among the prisoners, he liberated, and conferred on him rich presents. This kindness procured for him the favor of the Numidian monarch, and led to the advantageous alliance which Rome soon after concluded with this powerful prince. The title of king, which the Spaniards offered to the victorious general, he steadfastly refused. He now labored to reduce the disaffected tribes in the interior of Spain. In the mean while, the Carthaginians collected a fresh army, which was led by Mago and Hanno. Scipio attacked them, and, after a long and bloody engagement, destroyed the greater part of them. The remainder, abandoned by their commanders, were allowed to retire undisturbed, in consequence of the intercession of Masinissa. Leaving his army in Spain, he now went to Africa, to induce Syphax, king of Massæsylia, to become the ally of Rome; in which he

succeeded. After his return, he chastised the cities which had revolted during his absence. A short time after, he was attacked by a disease, which nearly cost him his life, and induced several Spanish tribes to revolt again from the Romans; even two legions in his own army mutinied. But Scipio recovered, and by his energy and prudence quelled the disturbances. He also obtained possession, by negotiation, of the valuable city of Gades. Thus the Carthaginians were wholly driven from Spain, and the greatest part of that country was subjected to Rome. The general entered Rome in triumph, amid the loudest acclamations of the people. Scarcely had he arrived, before he petitioned the senate for permission to conduct an army to Africa, that he might attack the enemy in their own country. In vain did Fabius Maximus exert his influence and eloquence to frustrate the design. Scipio was empowered to go to Sicily with an army and a fleet, in order, after mature deliberation on the means of effecting a landing on the coast of Africa, to execute the plan which he had formed. He arrived successfully at the island, and despatched his friend Lælius, with a detachment of troops and of the fleet, to the enemy's country. On landing, Lælius found the country almost destitute of soldiers, took and plundered several rich cities, laid waste the fields, and gained over Masinissa to the designs of Scipio. At the approach of the hostile fleet, he returned, laden with booty, to Sicily. Scipio now labored with redoubled activity to equip the troops for his great enterprise; and then hastened to the shores of Africa. His unexpected arrival spread terror among the Carthaginians, who were without an army or a good general. But they succeeded in detaching the powerful Syphax from the Roman alliance, and he came with an army of 60,000 men to their aid. Towards winter, the Romans, were forced to retire to a distance from the city by the superiority of the enemy: the negotiations for peace produced no result. The proconsulate of Scipio in Africa, therefore, was prolonged, till the war should be terminated. The following spring, the affairs of the Romans took a more favorable turn. The camp of Syphax was assailed, and his whole army destroyed; Asdrubal suffered a similar fate. The defeat was dreadful, and none escaped but the commanders, with a few attendants. Nevertheless, the Carthaginians collected a new army with wonder

ful rapidity; but it was equally unable to withstand the Romans. Masinissa, associated with Lælius, had again defeated Syphax, and taken him prisoner. The beautiful Sophonisbe, the daughter of Asdrubal, by whom Syphax had been gained over to Carthage, Masinissa longed to marry. Fearing the effect of her charms, Scipio commanded her to be brought to the camp as a Roman prisoner. Toavert such a disgrace, the king persuaded her to swallow poison. An armistice was now brought about between the Romans and their enemies; but the latter violated it. Hannibal had returned from Italy, to save his country, if possible; but he had now only the wreck of his once formidable army. His spies, who fell into the hands of the Romans, Scipio ordered to be led through all parts of the Roman camp, and then suffered them to return. Hannibal wished for an interview with the Roman commander; and not far from Zama, the two greatest generals of their time met (B. C. 202). They approached each other, for the first time, in the presence of their respective armies. For a long time they gazed upon each other in silence; then Hannibal advised a peace, and spoke of the fickleness of fortune. Scipio required of the Carthaginians unconditional submission; Hannibal promised to give up all the foreign possessions. This was not satisfactory to the Roman; and the generals separated and prepared for an engagement. The two armies fought with ardor; but their strength was unequal. Scipio had an excellent and welldisciplined infantry, and the numerous and valiant cavalry of Masinissa. Hannibal's troops, on the contrary, were mostly raw soldiers, or mercenaries. These fled at the first onset, and the veterans alone defended themselves with firmness. Their general stood by their side, as usual, to encourage their exertions. The Romans assailed them in vain, till Mas inissa and Lælius attacked them in the rear. They now gave way, and nearly all fell victims to their perseverance. Hannibal scarcely succeeded in saving himself. He now advised a peace, which was granted on very hard conditions. Scipio's return through Italy to Rome resembled a triumphal procession; every one was eager to see the conqueror. At the gate of the city he received the congratulations of his fellow-citizens; and then followed the most magnificent triumph which Rome had ever witnessed. The spoils were immense. 120,000 pounds of silver were carried in the pro

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