of Sclavonic origin, which carried on an active trade; as Novgorod, Kiev, Pleskow, in Russia (Dantzic, in Pomerelia, was of Danish origin; and the existence of Wineta, the splendid commercial city of the Wends, which was situated in Pomerania, on the river Divenow, near Wollin, was destroyed by the Danes, and then sunk in the sea, is extremely doubtful, according to Gebhardi's History of the Wendish-Sclavonic states); but no one of those cities had a long duration. Julin (now Wollin), in the tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries, was a rich and populous mart, till, in the last part of the twelfth century, it was demolished by the Danes. Ragusa, the only Sclavonic republic, maintained its existence more than 1100 years from 656 to 1806. It was, moreover, the first nurse of Sclavonic literature. With regard to the older history of this nation, we refer the curious to Surowiecki's valuable work, On the History of the Sclavonic Tribes (in the Polish language, Warsaw, 1824), where the author shows from Procopius, Jornandes and Sidonius, that the Sclavonians are the same with the Veneti.

Sclavonic Languages. The Sclavonic language, which, both in its roots and the words formed from them, bears a strong resemblance to the Greek, Latin and Teutonic, is spoken by more than sixty nations, from the countries on the east of the Adriatic sea, to the shores of the Icy ocean, and from the Elbe to the Russian islands of the Pacific. In all of the Sclavonic dialects appear traces of an early, though imperfect, civilization, to which the race had attained in its primitive seats. The Sclavonians are thus shown to have been acquainted, not only with agriculture and mining, but with navigation; and the civilization of the whole people was promoted by the intercourse which subsisted between the different cities. The origin of the Sclavonic language must be looked for in India: the Devanagari (see Indian Languages) has 56 letters; the old Sclavonic alphabet consists of 46; the Bohemian of 42. The religious rites of the Sclavonians resembled those of the Hindoos; and their women, like those of the latter, were accustomed to burn themselves on the funeral pile of their husbands. The Sclavonic has even yet preserved many roots of Indian origin. The Croatian traveller Brezowski declares that he was able to understand the Hindoos as far as to CochinChina, and to render himself intelligible to them. The Sclavonians are divided, by

their dialects, into two great classes. To the first belong the Russians, Illyrians, Montenegrins, Bulgarians, Servians, Bos nians, Dalmatians, Croatians, and the Wends (q. v.) in Carniola, Carinthia, Stiria, and in the county of Eisenburg. To the second belong the Bohemians (Cze chen, or Tschechen), Moravians, the Slowacs of Hungary (about 4,000,000% the Upper and Lower Lusatians, the Poles and Silesians. It is a disadvantage to Sclavonic literature, that no single dialect has prevailed as the literary language: and that, owing to the great extent of country over which the Sclavonic race has spread, and the diversity of its political and religious institutions, several dialects have become written languages. It is remarkable that the Sclavonians have preserved their national character, and have flourished to such a degree, when we reflect that they have been the first to suffer from the storms which have broke over Europe, from invading hordes of barbarians. They were exposed to the first fury, not only of the Teutonic nations, but also of the Tartars, Huns and Turks. The Sclavonians of Prussia, Brandenburg, Pomerania, Saxony, Altenburg, Misnia, and Silesia, yielded up their nationality only after a long struggle, and in consequence of the severest measures. Thus Frederic of Brandenburg prohibited the teaching of the Sclavonic language under pain of death, and introduced the German by force. The Lusatians still preserve their language and manners. According to Dobrowsky, the primitive Sclavonic is extinct. It was divided into two chief dialects-the Antian, or that of the Antes, or eastern Sclavonians: and that of the western Sclavonians, or the Sclavian. To the Antian stock belong. according to this author, three branches: the Russian (divided into the Great Rus sian and the Little Russian), the Servian and Croatian; and to the Sclavian, the three branches of the Bohemian, the Servian and the Polish. In general, the Sclavonic is less completely developed than the other European literary languages; but the Sclavonians were the first of the European races to translate the Bible into their mother tongue. The Russian and Polish languages comprise literatures of consider able value and extent. (See Russian Language and Literature, and Polish Language and Literature, under the heads Russia and Poland.) The Servian (q.v.) or Illyrian language has recently received new cultvation. The Sclavonic dialects of Bos nia and Bulgaria differ little from the Ser

vian. The Carinthian, or Wendish dialect, and the Slowac in Moravia, are nearly related to the Bohemian. The Wendish, in Lusatia, is a mixture of Polish and Bohemian; but in Lower Lusatia it is very different from those and from the Servian. The Bohemian has reached a high degree of cultivation. Prague is the central point of the literature. (See Bohe mian Language and Literature.) In Schaf farick's History of the Sclavonic Language and Literature, according to its Dialects (Buda, 1826), the author adopts the following division: A. The South-Eastern Sclavonic, comprising first, the old Sclavonian, or ecclesiastical language; second, the Russian language and literature; third, the literature and language of the Sclavo-Servians of the Greek church; fourth, the language of the Catholic SclaTo-Servians, with the literature of Ragusa; fifth, the Wendish language and literature; principal dialect, that of Lower Carniola. B. The North-Western Sclavonic: first, the Bohemians, or Czeches; second, Slowacs in Hungary; third, Poles; fourth, the Sorbians, or Wends, in Lu

satia.

SCLEROTICA, in anatomy; one of the tunics, or coats of the eye. (See Eyc.)

SCOMBER. (See Mackerel.)

SCONE; a village of Scotland, a little above Perth on the Tay. It was formerly the residence of the Scottish kings, the place of their coronation, and the scene of many historical events. There was formerly an abbey here. The remains of the palace are now incorporated with the mansion of the earl of Mansfield.

SCORESBY. (See North Polar Expeditons.)

SCORPION (Scorpio); a formidable insect, allied to the spider, but differing essentially in form. The body is elongated, and terminates abruptly in a jointed tail, armed at the extremity with a curved and very acute spine: under the point of this spine are two very small orifices, which serve to give passage to a poisonous fluid. The anterior pair of feet, or palpi, are very large, resembling those of the lobser in form, and serve to seize, and bear to the mouth of the animal, the various insects on which it feeds: the other feet do not differ essentially in form from these of the spider. At the junction of the thorax and abdomen, are two movable plates, having the form of combs, the nse of which is not well understood. Several species of scorpion are known, all inhabiting the warmer parts of the globe. They shun moisture, living on the

ground in places exposed to a hot sun, and hiding under stones, or in crevices, and, when disturbed, run, rapidly, with their tails curved over their backs. The species of the south of Europe are little more than an inch in length, while some of the tropical species exceed five inches. The sting of the larger ones is very much dreaded, and is said frequently to cause death. In some places, they are so numerous as to become a constant object of apprehension to the inhabitants, and even force them to abandon their habitations. The scorpions may be divided into two sections, viz. those with eight eyes, and those which have only six, like the species which inhabit the Southern States.

SCOTIA, NOVA. (See Nova Scotia.) SCOTISTS. (See Duns, and Scholastics.) SCOTLAND; a country of Europe, united with England and Wales, which forms the northern division of Great Britain. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic ocean, N. by the Deu-Caledonian or North sea, E. by the German ocean, S. E. by England, S. by the Solway frith, and S. W. by that part of the Irish sea called the North channel. It is situated between 54° and 59° N. lat. (including the Shetland and Orkney islands, 61° 12'), and between 1° and 5° W. lon. Its greatest extent from north to south is 244. miles; but a direct line from Carlisle northward to the Moray frith, does not exceed 180 miles. From the Mull of Cantyre, the western coast stretches 230 miles, in a straight line, to cape Wrath. The breadth, under different parallels, is various, from 147 to 70, and even 36 miles. Area of Scotland and its isles, 29,600 square miles, or 18,944,000 English acres ; of which 5,043,450 are cultivated, and 13,900,550 uncultivated lands; besides 638 square miles occupied by lakes and rivers. Population in 1821, 2,093,456. Of 447,960 families, 130,699 were employed in agriculture, and 190,264 in manufactures and commerce. The census of 1831 gave the population 2,365,700. In 1801, it was 1,599,068; in 1755, 1,265,380. Scotland is divided into the following counties, viz. Berwick, Roxburgh, Selkirk, Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Wigton, Ayr, Renfrew, Lanark, Peebles, Haddington, Edinburgh, Linlithgow, Stirling, Dumbarton, Clackmannan, Kinross, Fife, Forfar, Perth, Argyle, Kincardine, Aberdeen, Banff, Elgin, Nairn, Inverness, Ross, Sutherland, Caithness, Cromarty, Orkney islands, and Bute. These are subdivided into 910 parishes. Scotland is of a most diversified surface. In the northern parts it is

mostly mountainous and barren, while towards the south it extends into fertile plains. It has been separated into the two great divisions of the Highlands and the Lowlands, and also into the Northern, the Middle, and the Southern. The first or Northern division is cut off from the Middle by the chain of lakes which stretch from the Moray frith to Loch Linnhe. The second or Middle division is separated from the Southern by the friths of Forth and Clyde, and the Great canal. The Northern division consists generally of an assemblage of vast and dreary mountains, with some fertile valleys intervening, chiefly towards the south and east coasts. A portion of them is clothed with green herbage, more especially where sheep farming prevails; but in general they are covered with heath, vegetating above peat, rock, or gravel; and they frequently terminate in mountain caps of solid rock, or in vast heaps or cairns of bare and weather-beaten stones. The Middle division is also very mountainous, the Grampian ranges intersecting this district, and extending from the Eastern to the Western sea, and being from forty to sixty miles in breadth. The western parts of Argyleshire, which are also included in this district, are rugged, mountainous, and deeply indented by inlets of the sea. In these two divisions, which comprehend more than two thirds of Scotland, the arable ground bears but a small proportion to the mountainous regions. On the eastern coast, the proportion of the cultivated to the uncultivated land is much greater. In the Southern division we find every variety-verdant plains, well watered, and covered with cattle; gently-rising hills and bending vales, fertile in corn, waving with wood, and interspersed with meadows; lofty mountains, craggy rocks, deep narrow dells and tumbling torrents; nor are there wanting, as a contrast, barren moors and wild, uncultivated heaths. In this district are the different ranges of the Cheviot hills; the Sidlaw hills, terminating at Perth; the Ochil hills, forming the middle division; and a third, called the hills of Kilsyth and Campsey. Between the Sidlaw ridge and the Grampian mountains lies the extensive, pleasant and fruitful valley of Strathinore. Few countries in Europe display a greater extent of sea-coast. From Berwick, the coast bends north-west to the frith of Forth. The eastern part of Fife divides this frith from that of Tay. Northward, on the coast of Caithness, there is a vast bay of a

triangular form, the base or eastern line of which is seventy miles. The north coast is bold, rocky and dangerous. Along the western shores are many openings or inlets, where the sea runs far inland, forming safe and commodious harbors Scotland has numerous rivers, the chief of which are the Spey, the Dee, the North and the South Esk, the Tay, the Forth, the Clyde, the Tweed, the Southern Dee, the Annan, and the Liddal. The lakes or lochs are numerous and extensive. Scotland has no mines of the precious metals, but the lead mines contain silver. Ironstone, iron ore, and septaria ironstone, are abundant. Copper has been discovered in many places. The other metallic substances hitherto discovered are cobalt, bismuth, manganese, wolfram, plumbago, and mercury; the latter in very small quantities. Coal is abundant in the Southern and Middle districts. Limestone, freestone or sandstone, and slate, are found in every district. Marbles are also found. The Scotch pebbles are of many beautiful hues, blue and white, red and white, and frequently of all these colors, blended together in veins, and in every gradation of shade. Jasper is also found in great variety; and rock crystal, commonly denominated cairngorm, from the mountain of that name in Banffshire. Chalcedony is likewise found. The nature of the soil is various. There are many valleys or straths, even in the Highlands, which are exceedingly productive; and the southern and middle districts contain excellent land, and are as productive as any in the island. Scotland produces wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, beans, hay, potatoes, turnips, &c.; flax and hemp, but in no great quantities; and, in general, all the sorts of crops which are raised in the southern part of the island. Horticulture is making rapid increase in every part. Apples and other fruits are produced in abundance. Of late, many extensive tracts of waste land have been planted with wood. The alga marina, or seaweed, constitutes a valuable article of commerce, from the burning of it into kelp. The climate of Scotland is extremely variable. From its insular situa tion, however, the cold in winter and the heat in summer are not so great as in similar latitudes on the continent. greatest height of the thermometer that has ever yet been observed is 92° of Fahrenheit, and the lowest at Edinburgh is 3° below zero. Its ordinary range is from 84° to 8°, though it seldom maintains these extremes for any length of time. The

The

annual average temperature may be estimated at from 45° to 47°. Like most other mountainous countries, it is subject to rain, especially on the western coasts. The general average quantity of rain that falls appears to be from 30 to 31 inches. The wild animals of Scotland are the fox, the badger, the otter, the wild-cat, the hedgehog (these are now becoming scarce), the stag, the wild roe, the hare, the rabbit, the weasel, the mole, and other small quadrupeds. The domestic animals are the same as those of England; but the native breed of black cattle and sheep is considerably different, being smaller in size, but reputed to afford more delicious meat. Of the feathered tribe, pheasants are to be found in the woods, though scarce; also that beautiful bird called the capercailzie, or cock of the wood, now become exceedingly rare; the ptarmigan, the black game, and grouse, are abundant in the heathy mountains; and in the low grounds are partridges, snipes, plovers, &c. Scotland has also most of the English singing birds, except the nightingale. The aquatic fowls are numerous in the islands. Scotland has made great advances in all the finer manufactures. Flax and hemp are manufactured into a variety of fabrics, such as sheetings, osnaburghs, bagging and canvass. The cotton manufactures have been carried, by means of machinery, to a great degree of extent and perfection. Muslins, brocades, lappets of all sorts, imitation shawls, gauzes, spidered, seeded, and numerous species of draw-loom, cambrics, shirtings, sheetings, stripes, checks, pullicates, ginghams, shawls, &c., are manufactured. Cotton is also made into thread, of which large quantities are exported. Glasgow, Paisley, and the surrounding districts, are the chief seats of the cotton manufacture, which gives employment to 150,000 persons, and of which the annual value is £6,000,000 sterling. Calico-printing is also carried to a great extent. The great iron-works established in Scotland deserve particular attention, and that at Carron, near Falkirk, is the largest manufactory in Europe. Ship-building also forms an important branch of national industry; and there are manufactories of glass for all the different sorts of bottle, window, and flint glass; also of soap, candles, and starch, salt, &c. There are tanneries, breweries, and distilleries, and almost all articles of ordinary use are manufactured in Scotland. The whole manufacturing product is estimated to exceed in value £14,000,000 sterling (including the raw

material), employing nearly 300,000 persons. The different fisheries have been prosecuted with great industry and success. The whale fishery, to Davis's straits and Greenland, employs a great number of ships. The white fishery is also prosecuted with great industry along the Moray frith, Shetland, and the Western islands, and yields profitable returns. The herring fishery is carried on along the whole coast of the kingdom with great success, as is also the salmon fishery in all the different rivers. From the ports on the eastern coast of Scotland, a great trade is carried on to Holland, Norway, Sweden, and the different states on the Baltic. This trade has greatly increased of late years. The imports principally consist of flax, hemp, yarn, linen, iron, corn, wood, tallow, and other commodities produced in these countries; and, in return, colonial produce, cotton goods, and other manufactured articles, are exported. The chief shipping ports are Leith, Dundee, Arbroath, Montrose, Aberdeen, Peterhead, Banff and Inverness. The trade with Spain, Portugal, and the Mediterranean, is carried on from Leith and other ports; and the connexion with Canada extends to all the most considerable towns on the east coast of Scotland. The commerce of the west coast centres almost entirely in the Clyde, which is the grand emporium of the American, West Indian, and South American trade. Several vescels have sailed from Greenock, to carry on the trade to India, since, by the relaxation of the company's monopoly in 1814, it was partially thrown open to the merchants of this country. canals-the Caledonian canal, the Forth and Clyde canal, &c.—are described in the article Canal, under the division Canals of Great Britain. (See also Rail Roads.) The inhabitants of Scotland may be divided into two great classes, viz. Highlanders and Lowlanders. The language, dress and customs of these two classes are very different. The language of the Highlanders is that species of the Celtic called, in Scotland, Gaelic, or Erse. The ancient dress of the Highlanders is fast giving way to a more modern costume, although it is still retained in many places, and often worn on particular occasions. (See Highlands.) It is formed of woollen stuff, checkered with different colors, well known by the name of tartan. The inhabitants of the low country more resemble the English in their dress and manners, though in the country parts some peculiarities remain. The language

The principal

of the low country is English, with a mixture of the Scotch, which, however, in the ordinary dialect of the better classes more especially, is fast giving way to the English. The Presbyterian system of religion was established in Scotland by act of parliament, in 1696, and was afterwards secured in the treaty of Union. This system is founded on a parity of ecclesiastical authority among all its presbyters, excluding all preeminence of order, all its ministers being held equal in rank and power. It is also exceedingly simple in its forms, admitting of no outward splendor or ceremony, nor of any of those aids to devotion which are supposed to be derived from painting or music. There are in Scotland 910 parishes, and 938 established clergymen, who discharge the duties of the pastoral office in their several parishes. They are assisted by elders, who are selected from their congregation for the propriety of their conduct; these, with the minister, compose a kirk session, which is the lowest ecclesiastical judicature in Scotland. The ministers of several contiguous parishes constitute what is called a presbytery, which has cognizance of the conduct of the clergy, and of all ecclesiastical matters within its bounds. Synods form the next gradation in the scale of ecclesiastical judicature. They are composed of several presbyteries, and of a ruling elder from every kirk session within their bounds. They are courts of appeal, and review the procedure of the presbyteries. The general assembly, which is a representative body, consists of delegates from presbyteries, universities, and royal boroughs, in the following proportions, namely, for the presbyteries, 200 ministers and 89 elders; for royal burghs, 67 elders; and from the universities, 5 ministers or elders; in all, 361. Besides the Presbyterians (the established religion), there are numerous dissenters, namely, the Episcopalians, Burghers and Antiburghers, Quakers, Bereans, Baptists, Glassites, &c. There are Catholic churches in the principal towns; and in the northern parts of Scotland this religion has not been entirely superseded by the reformation. Members of the established church, 1,638,484; seceders (also Presbyterians), 285,000; Roman Catholics, 70,000; Episcopalians, 40,000, &c. In no country is there, perhaps, more ample provision for education than in Scotland. An act, passed in the reign of William and Mary, ordains that there shall be a school and a school-master in every parish. These

establishments, in which are taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and also Latin and Greek, have been attended with the happiest effects, having spread the spirit of improvement among all classes. (See School.) Scotland has also four universities, namely, at Edinburgh, St. Andrews, Glasgow, and Aberdeen. The ancient constitution of Scotland was superseded at the time of the union with England. In the parliament of England, the Scots nobility are represented by sixteen peers. In the house of commons, the freeholders of the counties, amounting to about 2424 are represented by thirty commissioners or knights of the shire. The royal burghs, which are sixty-five in number, exclusive of the city of Edinburgh (which sends one member), are divided into fourteen districts, which return as many members, elected by a delegate from each burgh. (See Parliamentary Reform, end of last volume.) Scotland, however, still retains her own ancient laws and institutions. Civil and criminal justice is administered by the college of justice, insti tuted by James V, in 1532, after the model of the French parliament. It is the highest court in Scotland, and consists of a president and fourteen ordinary lords. In 1807, the court of session was formed into two divisions, the first, consisting of seven members, under the lord-president: the second division, under the lord-jusuce clerk, consisting of six members. In 1815, a jury court was established, under a lord chief commissioner and two other commissioners, for the trial of civil cases. The court of justiciary is the highest criminal court in Scotland. The court of exchequer has the same powers, privi leges, jurisdictions and authority over the revenue of Scotland, as that of England over the revenue of England. In the high court of admiralty, there is only one judge, who is the king's lieutenant and justice-general upon the seas, and in all ports and harbors. He has a jurisdiction in all maritime causes; and, by prescription, he has acquired a jurisdiction in mercantile causes not maritime. The commissary court consists of four judges, nominated by the crown, and has an original jurisdiction in questions of marriage and divorce, and reviews the decrees of local commissary courts. Besides the above national judges, every county has a chief magistrate, called a sheriff, whose jurisdiction extends to cer tain criminal cases, and to all civil matters which are not, by special law or custom, appropriated to other courts. In cases of