verses of the first strophe in an arbitrary succession. The third strophe is formed in the same way from the second as this was from the first, and so on; so that each of the six final words is once the first and once the last word in each strophe, and the last verse of the sixth strophe ends with the final word of the first verse of the first strophe. The strophe of three lines, with which the sestina ends, repeats the six final words again in the same order as they stand in the first strophe: each verse contains two of them, one in the middle and one at the end. There is no other rhyme in the sestina. Petrarca has made successful essays in this form. In general, the Italians, and next to them the Spaniards, have most cultivated it. It has been attempted, also, in German. It can be readily imagined how easily this form leads to an idle play upon words; yet it is astonishing with what skill some poets have contrived to attach different ideas and feelings to the same words.

SESTINI, Domenico, the most learned numismatist of Europe, in regard to ancient coins, as far as the knowledge of them can be acquired by inspection, was born at Florence, in 1750. After having completed his studies at the school of St. Marco, he entered the clerical order; but, in 1774, he left his native city, and visited Rome, Naples, and the Sicilies. In order to prosecute his studies with more effect, he went from Sicily, through Malta and Smyrna to Constantinople, where he prepared his observations on the plague, which then prevailed. He made short journeys from Constantinople into Asia and Europe, and lived awhile in the house of prince Ypsilanti, hospodar of Walachia. At length, he went to Vienna, and returned along the Danube and over the Black sea to Constantinople. The British ambassador at the Porte, sir Robert Ainslie, was then forming a collection of ancient coins. For sixteen years Sestini was his agent, and in the course of his travels collected the celebrated cabinet which he has described in his Lett. e Dissertazioni numismatiche sopra alcune Medaglie rare della Collezione Ainsliena (4 vols., 1789-90, 4to.); Descr. Numor. vett. ex Museis Ainslie, Bellini, etc., necnon Animadverss. in Opus Eckhel. Doctrina Numorum vett. (Leghorn, 1796, 4to.). To gain a thorough knowledge of ancient coins, he travelled through Germany, visited Gotha, Dresden, and Berlin, where he settled, and was appointed, by the king, superintendent of the collection there. In 1-10, he went to Paris, where he was elect

van.

ed a corresponding member of the Acade mie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres,and,two years later, he received the appointment of antiquary and librarian of the princess Eliza, then grand-duchess of Tuscany. When Ferdinand III ascended the throne, he confirmed him in this office, and added the title of honorary professor of the university of Pisa. In November, 1825, he was living with count Viczay at HederHis principal writings are Diss. intorno al Virgilio di Aproniano (Flor., 1774, 4to.); Della Peste di Constantinopoli_del 1778 (Yverdun [Flor.], 1779, 12mo.); LA tere Odeporiche, ossia Viaggio per la Penisola di Cizico (2 vols., Leghorn, 1785); Viaggio di Constantinopoli a Bassora (Yverd [Leghorn], 1786); Viaggio di Ritorno da Bass ra a Constantinopoli (Leghorn, 1788 Lettere e Dissertazioni numismatiche, which appeared at Leghorn, Rome, Berlin, Milan, Pisa, and Florence, from 1789 to 1820, in 18 vols., 4to., with many engravings; the Descriptio Numorum veterum ex variis Museis (Leipsic, 1796, 4to.); the Catalogus Numorum velerum Musai Aragoniani (Berl., 1805, fol.); the Deser, selectiorum Numismatum in Ere marimi Mcduli Museo olim Ab. de Camps, postea par Mareschalli d'Etrées, etc. (Berl., 180, 4to.); Descr. delle Medaglie Greche e Romane del fu Benkowitz (Berl., 1800, 4to.:: Descr. degli Stateri antichi illustr. con le Medaglie (Flor., 1817); Diss. sopra le Medaglie antiche relative alla Confederaz degli Achei (Milan, 1817, 4to.); and the Desc. delle Medaglie Ispane appartenenti alla Lusitania Betica e alla Tarragonese del Museo Hedervariano (Fior., 1818, 4to.i His Classes generales seu Moneta vetus Urbium, Populorum el Regum Ordine Geographico et Chronologico descr. (Flor., 1821, 4to., 2d ed.), may serve, in many respects, as a general index to all these works There is but little prospect that his S48tema geographicum Numismaticum (written by his own hand, in 16 vols., folio), the fruit of fifty years of study and investigation, will be given to the world.

SESTOS; a fortress of European Turkey, opposite to Abydos (q. v.), fram which it is 2700 yards distant. The cas tles of the Dardanelles, sometimes called the Sestos and Abydos, are built near the sites of the ancient towns so called, famous for the loves of Leander and Hero.

SET-OFF, in law, is when the defendant acknowledges the justice of the plaintif ́s demand on the one hand, but on the other sets up a deinand of his own, to counterbalance that of the plaintiff, either

in the whole or in part; as if the plaintiff sue for $100 due on a note of hand, the defendant may set off $90 to himself for merchandise sold to the plaintiff, or for any other demand, the amount of which is ascertained in damages.

SETTLE, Elkanah, an English poet, was born in 1648. At the age of eighten, he entered at Oxford, but quitted the university without taking a degree, ad, going to London, commenced autor by profession. He wrote numerous political pamphlets, and, in reply to Dryden's poem entitled the Medal, occasioned by the whig party striking a medal to commemorate the throwing out of the bill against the earl of Shaftesbury, a piece called the Medal Reversed; and, soon after, a poem entitled Azaria and Hushai, designed as an answer to the Absalom and Achitophel. In 1685, he published a poem on the coronation of James II, and, about the same time, obtained a pension from the city, for writing an annual inauguration panegyric on lord mayor's day. Settle was, besides, an indefatigable writer for the stage, and produced fifteen dramatic pieces, none of which are now known on the boards. In the decline of life, he received a salary from the proprietor of a booth at Bartholomew fair, as a writer of " Drolls," which were generally very successful, and is said to have been, at that time, the best contriver of theatrical machinery in the kingdom. He died at the Charter-house, in 1724.

SETTLEMENT; a legal residence or establishment of a person in a particular parish or town, which entitles him to maintenance there, if a pauper. In England, the poor are supported by the parish where they have a settlement. In New England, they are supported by the town. In England, the statutes 12 Řichard II and 19 Henry VII seem to be the first rudiments of parish settlements. By statutes 13 and 14 Charles II, a legal settlement is declared to be gained by birth, by inhabitancy, by apprenticeship, or by service for forty days. But the gaining of a settlement by so short a residence produced great evils, which were remedied by statute 1 James II.

SETTLEMENT, ACT OF; a name given to a statute 12 and 13 William III, cap. 2, by which the crown was limited to the present reigning house in England, and by which some new provisions were added in favor of the subject, securing his liberty and the rights of conscience.

SETUVAL, or ST. UBES a town of

Portugal, in Estremadura; fifteen miles south-east of Lisbon; lon. 8° 54′ W.; làt. 38° 29′ N.; population 14,876. It is situated in a bay of the Atlantic, at the mouth of the river Sandao, with a good harbor, capable of receiving ships of any burden, and exports lemons, olives, oil, wine, and, above all, bay salt, of which no less than 200,000 tons are annually made here. The streets are paved, and the town is fortified with a mound, a citadel, and several small forts. Setuval contains five churches, one hospital, eleven convents, and an academia problematica.

SEUME, John Gottlieb, known for his writings and his adventures, a man of a vigorous mind, but eccentric disposition. was born at Poserne, in 1763. He was left an orphan, but was placed, by a charitable person., at the Nicolai school in Leipsic. Here he began the study of theology; but, becoming discontented, he set off secretly for Paris. On his way, he was forced to join the Hessian troops then raising to serve in America (1781). After his return, he was obliged to enter the Prussian service, but at length studied at the university of Leipsic, and, in 1793, became secretary of the Russian general at Warsaw. He soon after returned to Leipsic, where he published several works, and was employed as a corrector of the press. In 1801, he set out on a pedestrian excursion through Austria, Italy and France, and, on his return, published an account of his tour, under the title of Walk to Syracuse (in German). In 1805, he undertook a similar expedition into Russia, Sweden, &c., which is described in My Summer of 1805 (2d ed., 1815). He died at Teplitz, in 1810. His autobiography, which he left unfinished, was completed by Clodius, and is contained in the edition of his works in twelve volumes (Leipsic, 1826, seq.).

SEVEN ISLANDS. (See Ionian Islands.)
SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS. (See Arts.)
SEVENNES. (See Cevennes.)

SEVEN SLEEPERS. There is an old story that Epimenides of Crete reappeared in the world, after sleeping forty years in a cave (see Epimenides); and all our readers are acquainted with the veracious legend of Rip Van Winkle, as related in the Sketch-Book of Geoffrey Crayon ; but the slumber of the seven sleepers was of longer duration. In the time of the emperor Decius, when the Christians were persecuted, seven noble youths of Ephesus concealed themselves in a neighboring

cavern, the entrance of which was closed by order of the emperor. The persecuted youths immediately fell into a deep slumber, from which they were accidentally awakened in the reign of Theodosius II, after a period of 187 years. Pressed with hunger, after their long fast, they sent one of their number to the city to purchase bread. He was astonished to see crosses erected all over the city; and his own antiquated dress and obsolete language confounded the baker, to whom he offered an old medal in payment for bread. Suspected of having found a secret treasure, he was carried before the judge, to whom he related his miraculous story. The bishop of Ephesus, the magistrates, and the emperor himself, hastened to the cave, and found the sleepers still bearing the bloom of youth. They related their story to the multitude, gave them their benediction, and expired. The church has consecrated the 27th of June to their memory. (See the Acta Sanctorum of the Bollandists, tom. vi, 375–397.) This legend has not been confined to the Christian world. The Koran relates the tale of the seven sleepers, to whom it assigns a dog (Al Rakim), and out of respect for whom it declares that the sun altered his course twice a day, that he might shine into the cavern. The Mohammedan and Christian story are probably both derived from the same source.

SEVEN STARS. (See Pleiades.) SEVENTH DAY BAPTISTS. (See Baptists.)

SEVEN WISE MEN, or SEVEN SAGES OF GREECE. This name is commonly applied to seven philosophers, several of whom were legislators, of an early period of Grecian history. They were Periander of Corinth (in place of whom some give Epimenides (q. v.) of Crete), Pittacus of Mitylene, Thales (q. v.), Solon (q. v.), Bias (q. v.), Chilo, and Cleobulus (q. v.). (See Greece, division Greek Literature, p. 12).

SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD; seven monuments, remarkable for their splendor or magnitude. They are the pyramids (q. v.) of Egypt (instead of which some name the Pharos (q. v.) of Alexandria), the walls and hanging gardens of Babylon (q. v.), the temple of Diana at Ephesus (q. v.), the statue of the Olympian Jupiter (see Phidias), the Mausoleum (see Artemisia, and Mausoleum), and the colossus of Rhodes (see Colossus). These are not, however, to be considered the greatest works of ancient art and taste. This group of the seven wonders

originated among the Greeks in the time of Alexander. Philo the Byzantine has described them in his work De septem Orbis Spectaculis (late edition, Leipsic, 1816).

SEVEN YEARS' WAR. By the treaties of peace concluded at Breslau, July 28, 1742, and at Dresden, Dec. 25, 1745, Maria Theresa of Austria ceded to king Frederic II six principalities of Silesin and the county of Glatz. The loss of these fine territories was too painful for her not to think of recovering them. For this purpose, she concluded an alliance with Elizabeth, the empress of Russia, and personal enemy of Frederic, brought over to her cause the king of Poland and the elector of Saxony, Augustus III, and attempted to form a closer union with France, notwithstanding the enmity that had existed between that kingdom and her own for centuries. While Maria Theresa was occupied in these projects, a dispute had arisen between England and France, relating to the boundary between their possessions in America, which broke out, in 1755, into open bostilities. To protect his German states against an attack from France, the king of England concluded an alliance with Prussia; and, some months after, France made a league with the court of Vienna, promising to furnish 21,000 auxiliary troops against Prussia. But these auxiliaries were afterwards increased to 180,000; for it was rather the design of France to injure the king of England by conquering Hanover, than to aid in ac complishing the ambitious designs of the empress on Silesia. By means of Menzel, a clerk in the Saxon cabinet, all the proceedings of the Russian, Austrian and Saxon courts were discovered to Malzahn, the Prussian ambassador in Dresden, and Frederic II accordingly prepared himself for war. He demanded an explanation from the court of Vienna, received an equivocal answer, and resolved to anticipate his enemies. In August, 1756, therefore, he invaded Saxony with 60,000 men, in three divisions, invested Dresden, took possession of the documents neces sary to justify his conduct, which he found in the archives of the cabinet there, and invested the Saxon army of 15,000 men in their fortified camp at Pirna Meanwhile, field-marshal Brown advanced from Bohemia with an army to liberate Saxony. Frederic, leaving troops sufficient to maintain the siege of the Saxon camp, marched to Bohemia to meet the Austrians, and engaged them,

Oct. 1, at Lowositz. The battle, though not decisive, prevented the field-marshal from aiding the Saxons. They were forced to surrender as prisoners of war, and the inferior officers and common soldiers were compelled to enter the Prussian service; but they soon deserted, both singly and in whole regiments, because they would not fight against their own sovereign. Such was the end of the first campaign; and the Prussians remained through the winter in Saxony and Silesia. Frederic's invasion of Saxony excited a general commotion in the courts of Europe. It was pronounced to be a violation of the treaty of Westphalia, and France, as one of the guaranties of that treaty, now took part in the struggle. Sweden, too, for the same reason, and Russia, on account of her alliance with the empress, adopted a similar course. In the diet at Ratisbon, war was declared on the part of the empire against Prussia. Thus, in 1757, Austria, Russia, France, Sweden, and the German empire, were in arms against Frederic, while he had no ally but England; and, in a war by land, but little aid was to be expected from her. In order to anticipate his enemies, Frederic marched into Bohemia with four armies in April, 1757, and, May 6, a bloody battle was fought at Prague, in which the Prussians conquered, but lost their distinguished general Schwerin. The greatest part of the vanquished Austrian army threw itself into the city of Prague, to which the king immediately laid siege. Field-marshal Daun, who was stationed on the heights of Colin with 60,000 Austrians, received orders to hazard a decisive action for the relief of Prague. To prevent this, Frederic advanced to Colin (q. v.), attacked the enemy with 24,000 men, lost the batde, and 8-14,000 brave soldiers, and was forced to raise the siege of Prague, and to retreat to Saxony and Lusatia. He effected his retreat from Bohemia without further loss. Meanwhile, the French had taken possession of Wesel, the principalities of Cleve and East Friesland, the territories of Hesse-Cassel and Hanover, and laid them under contribution. The duke of Cumberland, who commanded the forces of the German states, allied with Prussia, namely, Hanover, Hesse, Brunswick, Gotha and Bückeburg, 40,000 men, to whom were opposed 100,000 French, was defeated at Hastenbeck July 26, and driven back to Stade, and concluded a capitulation, Sept. 8, at Kloster-Seven (which, however, was never carried into

execution), by the terms of which all the above-mentioned troops, except those of Hanover, were to be disbanded. A French army under the prince de Soubise, with the imperial forces, 15,000 men strong, under the prince of Hildburghausen, now menaced Saxony, and the hereditary states of Frederic, who, therefore, left the duke of Bevern in Silesia, marched to Thuringia, and drove the French from Erfurt. On receiving information that an Austrian army, under Haddick, had invaded the Mark, Frederic hastened back to Torgau. But, as the Austrians soon retreated, and the French advanced anew, he marched against the latter, and fought at Rossbach (q. v.), Nov. 5, that memorable battle, in which both the French and the imperial armies were defeated, and found safety only in a hasty flight. They went into winter-quarters at a distance, and the possession of Saxony was secured to the king. Upon this, Frederic hurried back to Silesia, where Schweidnitz and Breslau had fallen into the hands of the Austrians. With a small army, fatigued by a long march, he defeated, Dec. 5, at Leuthen (q. v.), a force twice as great, under Daun. Breslau surrendered fourteen days after, with a numerous garrison, and a large quantity of stores, and, soon after, Liegnitz also. In these actions the Austrians lost upwards of 40,000 men. Silesia was again torn from them, and Frederic was now more formidable to his foes than ever. The Russians marched into Prussia, in June, 100,000 men strong, laid waste the country in a barbarous manner, maltreated the inhabitants, defeated field-inarshal Lehwald, Aug. 30, at Grossjägerndorf, with his army of 24,000 men, and then returned, destroying all before them. The Swedes, in September, occupied Anklam, Demmin and Pasewalk; but, in a few weeks, they were defeated by Lehwald, and driven to Rügen. The third campaign was opened in February, 1758, by Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick (q. v.), who was now at the head of the allied armies, in the room of the duke of Cumberland, and opposed the French in Lower Saxony and Westphalia. His nephew, the hereditary prince, afterwards duke of Brunswick, Charles William Ferdinand, commanded under him. Duke Ferdinand made himself master of the Weser, expelled the French, under Clermont, from Lower Saxony and Westphalia, and defeated them, June 23, at Crefeld. He then returned over the Rhine to Hesse, where Soubise was stationed with a

French army, and whither Clermont followed him. Ferdinand, in the mean while strengthened by 12,000 English troops, forced the two hostile bodies to retire over the Maine and the Rhine, where they went into winter-quarters. In the winter of 1758, after the Austrians had been driven from Silesia, and Schweidnitz recovered, Frederic marched into Moravia, and in May commenced the siege of Olmütz; but, when Daun arrived, in July, he was forced to raise the siege, with the loss of a large stock of provisions and ammunition. The Russians, after having driven back the few Prussian troops, marched into Neumark, and Frederic hastened with a body of soldiers to protect his hereditary states. He came up with the Russian army, 50,000 men strong, who were besieging Custrin, attacked them at Zorndorf, Aug. 26, with 30,000 men, defeated them after a bloody engagement, and forced the Russians to retreat to Poland. After this, he again turned his attention to Saxony, where his brother prince Henry was no longer able to resist the Austrians. He encamped at Hochkirch (q. v.), where he was attacked in the night of October 14, and suffered a total defeat. Soon after, in Silesia, Frederic compelled the Austrians to raise the siege of Neisse; he then hastened to Saxony, and drove field-marshal Daun, who was besieging Dresden, back to Bohemia. At the close of the campaign, the king saw all his states, except the kingdom of Prussia, free from the enemy. In France, there was a general wish for peace; but Louis XV, and his mistress, the marchioness de Pompadour, were bent on continuing the war. A new alliance was, therefore, concluded with Austria, December 30, 1758, and the same month a treaty was also entered into between England and Prussia, in which Frederic was promised a yearly subsidy. Prince Henry marched into Bohemia, notwithstanding the severity of the winter; the hostile troops were dispersed, a corps of 2500 men was taken by general Hülsen, and an immense booty. The inactive imperial forces, in Franconia, prince Henry put to flight. Contributions were levied by the Prussians on Bamberg, Erfurt and Würzburg. Another body of Prussians invaded the duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, which was compelled to furnish large quantities of military stores, besides 16,000 recruits, in the course of the war, and to pay several million dollars, in consequence of the policy of their sovereign, who first gave his vote

to have Frederic II treated as an enemy of the empire. The allies, under Ferdinand of Brunswick, could effect but little at the beginning of the campaign of 1759. The French had taken Frankfort on the Maine by surprise, during the winter, and the plan for recovering this city was frustrated by the failure of the attack on Bergen, April 13. But, Aug. 1, Ferdinand gained a splendid victory at Minden over the French troops under Contades and Broglio. On the saine day, the hereditary prince of Brunswick likewise defeated the French at Gohfeld, and they were driven over the Lahn on one side, and over the Rhine on the other. But general Wedel, who undertook to resist the progress of the Russians, was defeated at Kay, near Züllichau, in the Neumark, by general Soltikoff, and Frederic hastened from Silesia to defend his electoral territories from the danger which hung over them. Aug. 12, he attacked the Russians at Kunersdorf (q. v.), not far from Frankfort, and had already defeated them, and even despatched messengers from the field with the news of his victory, when Laudon, who had previously joined the Russians with 18,000 Austrians, deprived him of his expected success. The Russians purchased their victory dearly, but they made no use of it. Frederic's position was extremely dangerous; indeed, he began to apprehend an unfortunate issue of the war. The Russians were victorious in his hereditary states; Daun was in Losatia with a large army, and Saxony was overrun by the imperial troops. The Austrians and Russians wished to unite; but prince Henry deprived the former of their magazines, and thus obliged them to retreat; and Frederic anticipated the Russians in their march to Silesia, and compelled them to retire to Poland. In Saxony, the king experienced a new misfortune. General Fink, a brave commander, was forced to surrender, at Maxen, Nov. 21,with 11,000 men and a large num ber of cannon, to the Austrians. But, notwithstanding all these mishaps, at the close of the campaign, the enemy were nearly every where driven back; only Daun remained in Saxony, where he had occupied Dresden. The Swedes, also, who, after the battle of Kunersdorf, when Prussian Pomerania was destitute of troops, invaded that country, were driven by Manteufel and Platen under the cannon of Stralsund. The campaign of 1760 seemed, at first, to forebode ill success to Frederic. The brave general Fouquet was taken at Landshut, with 8000 Prus