and his paternal grandfather in that of the Austrian dominions 1519,; and after be had repressed, with the help of the nobles, insurrections in Valencia and Majorca, and particularly in Castile (1520), where the third estate demanded a freer constitution; and after he had annihilated the principal part of the liberties of the nation by the separation of the deliberative estates, Spain became the first military and political power in Europe, during the four wars which Charles carried on with Francis I of France, and by which he obtained Milan. The victory of the Spaniards at Pavia (Feb. 24, 1525), which made Francis I the prisoner of Charles, in Madrid, till the peace of Madrid (Jan. 14, 1526), and the expedition of Charles into the north of Africa, extended the fame of the Spanish arms throughout Europe. The wealth which flowed in from Mexico, conquered by Cortez, in 1518, and from Peru and Chile, -conquered by Pizarro and Almagro, in 1528, was not sufficient to supply the demands of the royal treasury; so that the revenues of the crown were exhausted, the taxes increased, and debts contracted. The thirty-five years' union of Germany with Spain promoted the intercourse between the two countries. But the strength of the powerful monarchy was exhausted by the forty-two years' tyranny of Philip II. (q. v.) Oppression and religious intolerance, war and insurrections, occasioned the loss of the Netherlands, and depopulated the rest of the monarchy; and the conquest of Portugal, which remained united with Spain from 1581 to 1640, could not prevent its decay. England and Holland triumphed over the naval force of Spain, and destroyed her commerce; and Philip died in 1598, a bankrupt. Under his weak successors, Philip III (died 1621), Philip IV (died 1665), and Charles II (died 1700), the abuses in the administration increased. An incurable wound was inflicted upon the country by the expulsion of 600,000 Moriscoes in 1609. On the whole, the persecutions of the Arabians cost Spain about 2,000,000 of souls, and the expulsion of the Jews about 800,000. The southern coasts, likewise, were depopulated by the continual incursions of the pirates of Northern Africa. Favorites, such as Lerma and the count Olivarez, wasted the resources of the kingdom. Olivarez (q. v.) wished to employ harsh measures; insurrections were excited; and Mazarin (q. v.) compelled Spain to acknowledge the superiority of France,

in the peace of the Pyrenees (1659) By the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1668, by that of Nimeguen, in 1678, and by the reunions of Louis XIV, Spain lost many places in the Netherlands and Franche Comte. But after the death of Charles II (1700), the monarchy sunk entirely from its ancient elevation, in conse quence of the wars respecting the Spanish succession; and the population, which, in 1688, amounted to about 11,000,000, had diminished, in the first fourteen years of the leth century, to about 8,000,000.— From 1700 to 1808. Charles II, the last Spanish sovereign of the race of Hapeburg, in his second will, made Philip of Anjou, a grandson of his sister, the consort of Louis XIV, and second son of the dauphin, sole heir of his dominions, in order to prevent the division of the Spanish monarchy, which had been resolved on in a treaty between England, Holland and France. Louis XIV acknowledged his grandson king, according to the testament. The emperor Leopold I, of the race of Hapsburg, laid claim to the throne, whilst William III, king of England and stadtholder of Holland, was in favor of a division of the monarchy, for the sake of preserving the balance of power in Europe. The measures of Louis XIV at length brought on a war with England. Thus began the war of the Spanish succession (see Eugene, Marlborough, Utrecht, Peace of), in which the Bourbon, Philip V, after many changes of fortune, by the victories of Berwick and Vendome, maintained himself on the Spanish throne in opposition to Charles of Austria (afterwards the emperor Charles VI). But by the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, he was obliged to resign the Spanish dependencies in Europe-Naples, Sardinia, Parma, Milan and the Netherlands to Austria, and Sicily to Savoy. England likewise retained Gibraltar and Minorca. Under the Bourbons, the nation lost its last constitutional rights; for Arragon, Catalonia and Valencia were treated by Philip as conquered countries. The last diet held in Castile was in 1713, and in Saragossa in 1720. Biscay and Navarre alone retained some of their privileges. The ambition of cardinal Alberoni (q. v.), in 1717 et seq., involved Europe for a short time in confusion. Spain, in 1735, again obtained possession of the Two Sici lies, for the Infant Carlos, and, in 1748, of Parma, for the Infant Philip. Naples and Sicily were ceded to a Spanish Bourbon. Under the reign of Charles III, 1759-88, the Bourbon family compact

of 1761 involved Spain, to its injury, in the war between the French and English. The expeditions against Algiers likewise miscarried; as did the siege of Gibraltar, in the war of 1779-83. Yet this did not disturb the course of the internal administration, to the improvement of which, men like Aranda, Campomanes, Olavides and Florida Blanca (q. v.) devoted themselves. They provided particularly for the advancement of agriculture, the useful arts, and commerce. The population consequently increased. According to the census of 1768, it amounted to 9,300,000, and in 1798, to 10,061,000 men. The power of the inquisition was restricted, and the secret opposition of the Jesuits annihilated at a blow, by the pragmatic sanction of April 2, 1767, which banished them from all the Spanish dominions, and confiscated their property. But the imagination of the nation was employed upon the mystery of the immaculate conception, and the sinless purity of the virgin Mary. The pope, at the desire of Charles III, declared the whole Spanish monarchy, together with the colonies, under the protecting influence of the immaculate conception. The king established some orders with the device of a female figure dressed in white and blue, in allusion to this doctrine; and every Spaniard, who wished to receive a degree from a university, or to belong to a corporation, and even mechanics, on joining the associations of their trades, were obliged to take an oath of their firm belief in the immaculate conception. The progress in improvement, even during the reign of Charles IV, 1788-1808, was obvious; so that Florida Blanca was able to quiet the wish of the people for the reassembling of the ancient cortes. But he was superseded, in 1792, by Godoy (q. v.), whose administration was as void of plan as it was injurious to the state, and greatly exasperated the nation; so that the fall of the most fortunate and proudest favorite of modern times, was immediately followed by that of the royal house. Spain, at first, entered with zeal into the war against the French republic (the voluntary contributions of the nation to the expenses of the war amounted to 73,000,000 francs); but the favorite, who wished to conduct the war from his palace, ruined all, and hastened to conclude the discreditable peace of Basle, by which Spain resigned half of St. Domingo; on which occasion Godoy received the title of "prince of peace." He then concluded with the republic, the leaders of which deluded

him with the prospect of placing a Spanish prince on the throne of France, the important offensive and defensive alliance of St. Ildefonso, in 1796, and declared war against England; but being defeated at sea, Spain lost Trinidad, by the peace of Amiens, in 1802. In consequence of the entire interruption of the colonial trade, taxes and debts increased, whilst the credit of the nation sunk. The prince withdrew from the conduct of affairs, but his relation Cevallos (q. v.), after the banishment of the able Urquijo, became prime minister in 1800. The prince retained his influence, and rose to high dignities. He leaned to the politics of Napoleon, and commenced military operations, in 1801, against Portugal, which was obliged to cede Olivença to Spain, at the peace of Badajoz; whilst France took possession of Parma, and made its duke king of Etruria in 1801; in consequence of which, Spain ceded Louisiana to Napoleon, who, in 1803, sold it to the U. States. Charles IV, in the war between England and France, in 1803, having purchased permission to remain neutral, by a monthly tribute of 1,000,000 piasters to Napoleon, the English seized the Spanish frigates, which were carrying the products of the American mines to Cadiz (October, 1804); and Spain, though suffering under great exhaustion, famine, and the yellow fever, was compelled to declare war against England. The victory of the English at Trafalgar, Oct. 21, 1805 (q. v.), destroyed its naval power; the bold Miranda (q. v.) excited the desire for independence in Spanish America, in 1806, and Napoleon overthrew the throne of the Bourbons in Naples.-See the works of Desormeau, Chronological Abridgment of the History of Spain (in French); and of W. Coxe, Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon (1700—1788, 2d edition, London, 1815).

III. Spain from 1808. The prince of peace (Oct. 3, 1806) called on the nation to arm against "the common enemy;" and Napoleon, therefore, sent a Spanish army, under Romana, to Denmark, and another, under O'Farill, to Tuscany. Oct. 27, 1807, he concluded a secret treaty at Fontainebleau, respecting the division of Portugal, mentioned in the article Napoleon. 28,000 French soldiers, maintained by Spain, marched over the Pyrenees, and were joined by 11,000 Spaniards. The family quarrels of the royal family favored the plans of the French ruler on Spain. The prince of Asturias (Ferdinand) had refused to mar

ry the sister-in-law of the prince of peace; and, to secure himself against the vengeance of the offended favorite (see Godoy), he wrote, by the advice of Escoiquiz, his former teacher (Oct. 11, 1807), to Napoleon for protection, and requested the hand of one of his nieces. The emperor did not answer this letter till April 16, 1808, when the prince was on his way to Bayonne. At the time of his writing to Napoleon, the prince had addressed a letter to his father, exposing the mistakes and abuses of the administration, and requesting to be allowed some participation in the government. The queen was enraged, and the prince, Escoiquiz and the duke of Infantado were arrested. Charles IV, at the instigation of Godoy, now wrote to Napoleon, stating that the prince of Asturias had intended to dethrone him, and to deprive his mother of life, so that he ought to be excluded from the succession. The junta, however, which was convened for that purpose, unanimously acquitted the prince and the other prisoners; but Godoy induced Ferdinand to ask pardon of the king and queen; on which the king caused the letter to be published in the Gazette of Madrid, and issued a decree granting pardon to the prince on account of his repentance. The other prisoners were banished. Thus ended, in November, 1807, the process of the Escurial. In the mean while, French troops had entered Spain. Charles IV received them as allies; but, on a sudden, the court prepared to leave Aranjuez for Seville. It was rumored that the royal family intended to go to Mexico. A violent commotion now took place in Madrid, and multitudes flocked to Aranjuez. March 18, 1808, the people and the soldiers broke out into fury against the prince of peace, who was only saved by the promise of the prince of Asturias, that he should be brought to justice. In other parts of the country, also, the people showed their bitter hatred of this unworthy favorite. Charles IV, on the same day, took the command of the army and fleet, the prince of peace being dismissed. But on the 19th, he resigned the crown in favor of his son, of which he informed Napoleon, as he had done of the former step. Ferdinand VII, on March 24, made a public entry into Madrid, which had been occupied by Murat, grand-duke of Berg, and commander of the French troops, the day previous. Ferdinand informed Napoleon of his assumption of the royal power; but the em

peror caused the whole family to be conveyed to Bayonne, where he himself arrived, April 15. Charles IV had se cretly retracted his resignation, on March 21; and on the same day the queen had written to Murat, to obtain protection for the prince of peace. Charles IV informed Napoleon of his having retracted his resignation; and, in short, the affairs of the royal family were most wretchedly embroiled. (For an account of the proceedings at Bayonne, see the article Joseph Bonaparte.) During the meeting at Bayonne, a commotion, attended win bloodshed, took place, on May 2, Madrid. The Spaniards had been excited by the arrogance of the French, and attacked them. Many were kille on both sides. This event is thought to have hastened the steps taken at Bayonne. But though the most enlightened part of the Spaniards were in favor of Joseph, and all the ministers of Ferdinand VII entered Madrid with him (July 201, some parts of the country would not acknowl edge him so easily, in many cases instigated by the priests and monks, who had every thing to fear from a more enlightened government. It could not, however, be expected that any country shousi change dynasties so suddenly without a struggle; yet this struggle would have, at length, ceased, had it not been kept up, in the sequel, by the support of England. The people in Asturia first took up arms; Arragon, Seville and Badajoz followed. Palafox carried from Bayonne to Saragossa the order of the prince of Asturias, that the people should arm; and the su preme junta received permission to as semble the cortes. Revolution broke out every where, which the French were too weak to resist. Moncey retreated to Valencia; and generals Dupont and Weder were beaten at Baylen, July 19 and 20 1808. The badge adopted by the Spaaish soldier was a red ribbon, with the scription Vencer o morir por patria por Fernando VII. June 6, the junta Seville had issued a proclamation of war. The French squadron at Cadiz surreddered, June 14, to the Spaniards. S days later an insurrection broke out Portugal. July 4, the alliance of Grent Britain with the Spanish nation was proclaimed, and a struggle began, whwich, whatever opinion may be entertained respecting the conduct of Napoleon, eve ry one will admit to have led, as fur respected Spain, to nothing but ev Marshal Bessières was successful in the battle at Medina del Rio Secco, July 14,

over general Cuesta; but the affair at Baylen, above mentioned, decided the retreat of the French from Madrid, and, August 23, Castaños entered the city. General Romana had secretly embarked his troops at Fühnen, and landed in Spain, and Wellesley was victorious over the French under Junot, August 21, at Vimeira, on which the French general capitulated the day after at Cintra, and soon after evacuated Portugal. A central junta had been formed September 25, 1808, but unity did not prevail in it._Napoleon advanced with a new army, November 6, as far as the Ebro. On the 10th, Soult defeated the centre of the great Spanish army. Victor and Lefebvre's victory on the 11th, at Espinosa, opened the way to Asturia and the northern coast; and, in consequence of the success of Lannes, at Todela, November 22, many fugitives took refuge in Saragossa. (See Saragossa.) The mountain pass of Somo Sierra was taken by assault, by the French and Poles, November 30, under Napoleon and Bessières; and, December 2, the French army appeared before Madrid, which surrendered on the 4th. The central junta now retired to Badajoz, and afterwards to Seville. The Spaniards believed that the success of the French was owing to treachery, and more than one of their generals was assassinated in consequence of this suspicion. The French gained many victories and took many fortresses; but the conquerors remained masters only of the places which they occupied. The guerillas surrounded and harassed them every where. No line of communication was safe for the French their means of support failed. In vain did Napoleon, December 4, 1808, abolish the feudal privileges, and the inquisition; in vain did Joseph try every means to win the love of the people; nothing could avail against the fanaticism of the monks. Austria now declared war. Napoleon was obliged, in January, 1809, to leave the conduct of the war to his marshals; and the Spaniards considered his departure as a victory. During the following five years, the French generals did all that talent and courage

According to Carnicero, the system of the guerillas was principally organized by Romana. General Juan Martin, surnamed the Empecinado, collected a body of them in the neighborhood of Madrid. Among the other guerilla leaders, Mina and Porlier were distinguished. This system preserved the energy and the confidence of the nation unbroken. After every reverse, the Spaniard consoled himself with the well-known non importa.

could do; but the charm of Napoleon's presence was wanting, and Wellington (q. v.) finally triumphed over them. The situation of Joseph became extremely unpleasant, even as regarded his relations with France, as has been stated in the article Joseph Bonaparte. Many of his adherents began to waver when the rumor was spread that Napoleon intended to separate some provinces from Spain; against which, however, Joseph declared himself explicitly. The struggle continued during six bloody campaigns, from May 2, 1808, to the battle of Toulouse, April 10, 1814. Every where, and almost daily, blood was shed, from Cadiz to Pampeluna, and from Grenada to Salamanca. No mercy was shown. Spanish women tortured and murdered the prisoners. Seven hundred French prisoners were drowned in the Minho. In Oporto and Coimbra, the French sick and wounded were murdered in the hospitals. Even non-combatant officers were killed. The supreme junta created armies with restless activity. Napoleon's exertions were also great. The French forces in the peninsula, when most numerous, viz. when Masséna marched with 80,000 men to Portugal, amounted to 200,000 infantry and 30,000 cavalry; and, in 1813, when Madrid and Valladolid were evacuated by them, to 130,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry. The noncombatant officers, besides, were tremely numerous. In the French lines, the sword and dagger, plague and want, were active in the work of destruction. De Pradt estimates the loss which France suffered in the actual expenses of the war, during six years, at 230,000,000 of francs, without reckoning the loss occasioned by the interruption of commerce. Two objects chiefly occupied the French generals in 1809 and 1810-the re-conquest of Portugal, and the march over the Sierra Morena to Cadiz. As the British had become masters of Portugal, and the northern coasts of Spain, including Ferrol and Corunna, were again open to their ships, the re-conquest of Asturia was not effected by Ney and Kellermann until May 14-20, 1809. In the mean time, sir Arthur Wellesley (subsequently duke of Wellington) advanced from Lisbon, by the way of Alcantara, up the Tagus, and Cuesta joined him near Truxillo, whilst the English general Wilson advanced over Placenzia, and the Spaniard Venegas, from the Sierra Morena, towards Madrid. This bold plan of attack was frustrated by the battle of Talavera (July 27 and 28). The English, indeed, were victorious over

ex

Joseph, Victor and Jourdan; but, not being sufficiently supported by the Spaniards, and being threatened by Soult and Ney advancing on their flank, they were obliged to retire to the frontiers of Portugal; after which Venegas also began to retreat, and was defeated by Joseph at Almonacid, August 11, as was Wilson by Ney, in the passes of Baros. Madrid thus escaped a siege. August 18, the Spanish orders of monks were abolished; but this measure was far from popular, and the sufferings of Spain, which the people, as usual, attributed to the existing government, tended greatly to aggravate the excitement of the mass of the nation against their French sovereign. The central junta at Seville now resolved to yield to the universal wish, to assemble the cortes and to nominate a regency. New armies were created. Arezaga advanced with 55,000 men as far as Ocaña, where, however, he was entirely defeated by Mortier, November 18. Madrid, therefore, was again saved; but in Catalonia, Arragon and Biscay, the bloodiest struggle was carried on with the bands of the insurgents. The Empecinado's troop advanced even to the vicinity of Madrid. In Old Castile, the troops of Barrioluchio, Couvillas, Rodrigues and Jacobe, in Navarre, the troops of Mina, were a terror to the enemy. The largest company of them, 4500 men, under the dreaded Marquesito, formerly a colonel in the army, encountered several French generals in the open field. In vain did the French establish fortresses on their lines of communication, and endeavor to protect their rear by movable columns. Yet their plan against Andalusia succeeded. With 22,000 men, the rash Arezaga thought he could maintain the line on the Sierra Morena, fifteen leagues long, intrenched and mined, and having in its centre the fortified pass of Peraperos, against 60,000 troops commanded by the best generals of Europe. Dessolles and Gazan, on January 20, 1810, took the pass of Despenna-Peras; Sebastiani stormed the defile of St. Estevan, and took the bridges over the Guadalquivir; and, January 21, Joseph entered Baylen. Jaen was conquered; Cordova submitted. Sebastiani occupied Grenada January 29, Malaga February 6, and Joseph entered Seville February 1, from which the junta had fled to Cadiz. This place, the only one which remained in the hands of the Spaniards, defended by 16,000 men under Albuquerque, and 4000 English soldiers under Graham, and the combined British and Spanish fleets, was besieged Februa

ry 6; but all the efforts and offers of the French were in vain. The war in Catalonia and Arragon continued. In Leon, the French conquered Astorga, April 22, and now directed their arms against Portugal. In this country, to the north of the Tagus, Wellington commanded a British army of 30,000 mer, and Beresford a Portuguese army of 59,500 men, besides 52,800 militia. The right wing of Wellington, at Badajoz, was joined by 20,000 Spaniards under Romana, and 8000 under Ballesteros. The main body of the allied force was posted on the heights of Lisbon, which had been rendered impregnable. Wellington's plan, therefore, was defensive. Massena began his undertaking in June, by the siege of Ciudad-Rodrigo, which surrendered July 10, and Ney entered Portugal, over the river Coa, July 24; but Almeida, which was defended by Coxe, detained Masséna until August 27, when it was obliged to capitulate. Wellington ordered the whole country, through which Masséna could follow him, to be laid waste; and the latter was obliged to take measures for the support of his army during four weeks, before he could proceed. At last, Massena advanced, September 18, over the Mondeja, to Coimbra. On this march, he was beaten, on the 27th, at Busaco, but, nevertheless, was able to occupy the heights of Sardico, which opened to him the plains of Lisbon. Wellington now entered the strong position of Torres-Vedras, which consisted of two lines on the heights of Lisbon, defended by 170 wellplaced works and 444 cannons. Massena found this position unassailable, and retreated, after several engagements of little importance, November 14, to Santarem. Here he remained till March, 1811, when he was compelled, by want of provisions, to evacuate Portugal entirely. He hardly succeeded, by the battle of Fuentes d'Onero, of two days' continuance, in effecting a union with the garrison of Almeida, which blew up the works, and fought its way to him under Brenier. But the French were victorious at other points Suchet, January 2, 1811, took the impor tant fortress of Tortosa, in Catalonia, and, June 28, after a murderous assaul of five days, the fortress of Tarragona: Soult took the frontier fortresses towards Portugal, Olivença and Badajoz, March 10; and Victor defeated the English general Graham, who wished to deliver Cadiz, March 3, at Chiclana. In the autumn, Suchet marched against Valencia. After having beaten the army under genera