of 19 years, after having been for some time tutor, he went to the university of Halle, where he soon gave up theology, and confined his attention to medicine. In 1787, he wrote his inaugural dissertation-Rudimenta Novologia Dynamice and was graduated. He soon resolved to confine himself to the theoretical part of medicine, and to exert himself as an author only. He contributed much to a periodical, the Literary News for Physicians, Surgeons, and Naturalists, and edited it himself from 1787 to 1789, when it ceased. In 1789, he was appointed professor extraordinarius, having lectured some time previous on forensic medicine and the history of medicine. In 1795, he was appointed professor ordinarius, with 50 Prussian dollars salary! In 1797, he also received the professorship of botany, and his salary was raised to 400 Prussian dollars. He now received many offers of appointments, and his salary was accordingly put upon a more liberal scale. Meusel gives the list of the numerous works of this distinguished man, who soon became an ornament of his country and Europe. They are distinguished by great erudition, research, and grasp of mind. His Pathology; his History of Medicine (third edition, Halle, 1821, 5th and last volume 1828), translated into several languages; his Institutiones Medica, reprinted in Milan; his Historia Rei Herbariæ; his translation of Theophrastus; and his edition of Linnæus's Systema Vegetabilium (sixteenth edition), deserve to be particularly mentioned. He is a member of nearly seventy learned societies, including the French academy; and the king of Sweden, as well as his own king, has conferred on him an order of knighthood. His eldest son, William, is professor of surgery at Greifswald, and is also known as an author. The character of Kurt Sprengel is very amiable. He is beloved by his pupils, who accompany him on his botanical excursions, and in the evenings assemble at his house. He intends to crown his literary labors by an edition of Dioscorides. SPRING. This season begins when the sun, in its ascent, crosses the equator, and ends when it reaches its highest position in the heavens at mid-day. With us, the beginning of spring is ascertained by the sun's entrance into Aries; and its entrance into Cancer forms the end. The former happens March 22, and the latter A Prussian dollar is about 68 cents. June 21. In the southern hemisphere. the astronomical spring begins Septemher 23 and ends December 21; thus it falls at the time of our autumn. Under the equator, and, in general, in the torrid zone, the seasons of the year are not d vided in the same manner as in the temperate. They are distinguished into the dry and wet seasons. (See Seasons.) SPRING, among sailors, implies a crack running transversely or obliquely through any part of a mast or yard, so as to render it unsafe to carry the usual quantity of sail thereon.-Spring is also a rope passed out of a ship's stern, and attached to a ra ble proceeding from her bow, when she lies at anchor. It is usually employed bring the ship's broadside, or battery of cannon, to bear upon some object, s another ship, a fortress, &c. When a ship rides by anchors which are only atached to one end, she will move accord ing to the direction of the wind or tide. Now, if a rope be extended from the other end to the same anchor, it is evident that, by slackening one of these ropes, and keeping the other fast, her side will be more or less obliquely to the wind or tide, as occasion may require, so as to be op posed to any distant object to the right of left.-Spring is likewise a rope extending diagonally from the stern of one ship to the head of another which lies abreast of her at a short distance, and is used to make one of the ships sheer off to a greater distance from the other. Springs of this kind are occasionally applied to a wharf or pier for the same purposes.To spring a mast, yard, &c. is to crack it transversely or obliquely. SPRING TIDE; the periodical excess of the elevation and depression of the tide, which happens soon after the new and full moon. (See Tide.) SPRINGFIELD; the shire town of Hamp den county, Massachusetts, on the east side of Connecticut river, 97 miles southwest of Boston, 18 south of Northampton, 28 north of Hartford. The houses are very well built, and the tow has the appearance of great industry and wealth. Many new and elegant buildings have lately been erected, and five med ing-houses have been built within a few years. It contains the county buildings and is united with West Springfield by an elegant bridge. Population in 15% 6784. On Mill river, which flows into the Connecticut, there are very extensive mills and factories of various kinds These give to Springfield a very active business. It has easy communication by the river with the large towns of Connecticut, as well as those above it in Massachusetts. Great attention is paid to the common schools, and the people generally are intelligent and enterprising. There is in this town, belonging to the U. States, a very extensive establishment for the manufacture of arms. The arsenal is situated on an elevated plain, about half a mile east of the village. The buildings are finely arranged around a level square of 20 acres, and make an elegant appearance. One of the buildings is 204 feet by 32, and two stories high; another is 100 by 40; a third is 60 by 32; and there are several smaller ones, and about 20 dwelling-houses. Great quantities of arms are manufactured annually, and preserved for public use, or sent to the several states. The people of this town suffered much annoyance by the party of rebellious opponents to the state government, who collected here in 1786, and continued till January, 1787. They were commanded by Shays. (See Shays's Insurrection.) SPRINGS. The origin of the numerous springs that break forth from beneath the earth's surface cannot be referred to one exclusive cause. The internal reservoirs by which they are supplied are, in many cases, derived from the water which the earth absorbs from rains and melted snow; from these reservoirs, wherever there is uneven or mountainous ground, the water flows out by minute fissures in the sides of the hills. But when we see springs Crising up in plains, it is evident that they must have ascended, that is, travelled in a direction contrary to that produced by the force of gravity, in order to reach the surface. This, no doubt, is sometimes to be attributed to water flowing under ground from distant elevations, and to the natural tendency of a liquid to find its level. But the rising up of springs in plains cannot always be accounted for in this manner; and it has, therefore, been supposed, that the earth contains capillary tubes. (q. v.) It is also evident that such springs as suffer no diminution even from the longest continued dry weather, must be derived from a source quite independent of rains, and other external means of supply. They must, therefore, proceed from some vast body of water within the earth; and it has, with apparent reason, been concluded, that many springs arise from the ocean, filtering through the pores of the earth, the salt particles being lost in the passage. Springs which have their waters com bined with mineral substances, and are, from that circumstance, called mineral, are very numerous, and of various kinds. (See Mineral Waters.) Warm and hot springs are also common, especially in volcanic countries, where they are sometimes distinguished by violent ebullitions. Iceland is noted for these curious phenomena: its celebrated boiling fountain, the great Geyser, frequently throws out its contents to the height of more than -a hundred feet; sometimes to twice that elevation. Periodical or intermittent springs are those which differ periodically in the quantity of water which they deliver; or even cease to flow entirely for a time. The spring of Fonsanche, near Nismes, flows daily for a little more than seven hours, and ceases five hours; that of Colmars, in Provence, ceases to flow every seven minutes. In 1755, the great earthquake which destroyed Lisbon rendered it a perpetual fountain; but in 1763, it again became intermittent. This phenomenon is explained with much probability by the supposition, that there are cavities or basins under the earth, filled from above, and emptied by siphons. These empty the basin to the level of the point where the legs meet, then cease to flow until the leg connected with the basin is again filled to its highest point. (See Siphon.) If the siphon conducts the water to a distance, it may flow in dry weather and cease in wet. SPRIT; a small boom, or pole, which crosses the sail of a boat diagonally from the mast to the upper aftmost corner, which it is used to extend and elevate. These sails are accordingly called spritsails.-Spritsail is also a sail attached to a yard which hangs under the bowsprit. SPRUCE. (See Appendix, end of this vol.) SPUNGE; an instrument used to clean the cannon after firing, and to extinguish any sparks that may remain behind. They are sometimes made of bristles, resembling a round brush, but more generally of sheep-skin, with the wool outwards, nailed upon a block of wood nearly as large as the calibre of the piece. The block is either fixed upon a long wooden staff, or upon a thick piece of rope, well stiffened by serving it with spun-yarn. This latter is much more convenient on board of ships, on account of its flexibility, and generally has a block at the upper end, to use as a rammer.—To spunge a gun is to clean it out with the spunge. SPUNGE. (For the substance so called, see Appendix, end of this volume.) SPUN-YARN; a small line, or cord, form ed of two, three, or more rope-yarns, twisted together by a winch; the yarns are usually drawn out of the strands of old cables, and knotted together. Spun-yarn is used for various purposes, as serving ropes, weaving mats, &c. SPURRED RYE. (See Ergot.) SPURZHEIM, Gaspard, doctor, a celebrated physiologist, was born near Treves, in 1776, and received his medical education at Vienna, where he became acquainted with doctor Gall, the founder of the science of craniology. (See Phrenology.) To this science Spurzheim became exceedingly partial; and he soon joined doctor Gall in making inquiries into the anatomy of the brain. They quitted Vienna, in 1805, to travel, and went, in 1807, to Paris. Since 1814, doctor Spurzheim has travelled and lectured in England, Scotland and Ireland, and, in conjunction with doctor Gall, published the result of his inquiries into the Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System; Inquiry into the Nervous System in general, and that of the Brain in particular; Physiognomical. System of Doctors Gall and Spurzheim, &c.; an Examination of the Objections urged, in England, against the Doctrines of Gall and Spurzheim; Observations, &c. &c. on Mental Derangements; and Observations on Phrenology (of which a fourth edition is now preparing). He has, from time to time, resided in Paris, where he has published some phrenological works in French. An account of his system will be found in the article Phrenology. SQUARE, in geometry; a quadrilateral figure, both equilateral and equiangular, or, in other words, a figure with four equal sides and equal angles, which geometry proves must be right angles. It holds the first place among the parallelograms. The height and width of a square are equal: all squares are geometrically similar, and the diagonal line, or the line through two opposite vertices, divides the square into two equal and similar triangles. On account of its perfect regularity, the square is of great importance both in pure and applied mathematics. In the measurement of surfaces, it is the form to which all others are reduced. From the rules for calculating the superficial contents of parallelograms in general (to multiply the base by the perpendicular height), and from the nature of the square, it appears that it is only necessary to multiply one side by itself to have the area of the square, because each of the sides may be dicular height. Thus a square, the sides of which measure four feet, is equal to sixteen square feet; i. e. sixteen squares each a foot high and a foot long. The ares of countries is generally given in square miles. Sometimes a great mistake is made by using square miles for miles square: 300 square miles is an area of 300 squares, each of which measures one mile in length and breadth, whilst 300 miles square is a square each side of which measures 300 miles-hence the whole square contains 90,000 square miles. To square a figure (e. g. a polygon) is to reduce the surface to a square by mathematical means. It has often been attempted to square the circle, but as yet without success. (See Circle.) To obtain the square of a number, the number is multiplied by itself (see Power); and to extract the square root of a number is to find that magnitude which, multiplied by itself, gives the magnitude from which we have to extract the root. (See Root.) Square, in tactics, is the figure formed by infantry to resist most effectually an attack of cavalry in the open field. It can be formed in different ways; and it was once customary to spend much time in drilling troops to execute all the varieties of squares and other figures having the same object; but experience has shown that the so called solid square is the best, on account of its movability and simplicity, as well as its power of resist ance, though it is, perhaps more exposed to the effects of artillery. In some armies (e. g. the Prussian), all other squares are abandoned. A column, being of a square shape, can be thrown into a sobd square immediately by making the men face to each of the four sides. (See the article Column.) If a solid square is broken, the parts again form squares by facing to the four sides. Magic Squares are square tables with divisions, like a chess board, filled with numbers in the natural series, or any other arithmetical progression, in such a way that the numbers in the horizontal and vertical lines, and sometimes, also, those in the diagonal lines, yield equal sums if added together; for instance, 115 144 12 679 8 10 11 5 133216 considered as the basis, or as the perpen- Euler, Kircher, Franklin and others have made investigations respecting this subject. See, among other works, Mollweide's Commentat. de Quadratis Magicis (Leipsic, 1816). In India, in which country these tables were probably invented, they are used as talismans. Square-rigged vessels are contradistinguished to all whose sails are extended by stays, lateen, or lug-sail yards, or by gaffs and booms, the usual situation of which is nearly in a plane with the keel. Square-Sail is any sail extended to a yard suspended by the middle, and hanging parallel to the horizon, as distinguished from sails extended obliquely. SQUATTERS. (See Public Lands.) SQUILL. (See Appendix, end of this vol.) SQUINTING. (See Optics, head Vision.) SQUIRREL. (See Appendix to this vol.) STAAL, madame de, an ingenious French writer, first known as mademoiselle de Launai, was the daughter of a painter of Paris, where she was born, towards the close of the seventeenth century. Her father, being obliged to quit the kingdom, left her in great indigence; but some female recommendation procured her a good education at a priory in Rouen. Her patroness dying, she was compelled to hire herself as bed-chamber woman to the duchess of Maine. Unfit, however, for the duties of such an office, she was about to quit it, when a singular event rescued her from obscurity. A beautiful girl of Paris, named Tétard, was induced by her mother to counterfeit being possessed; and all Paris, including the court, flocking to witness this wonder, mademoiselle de Launai wrote a very witty letter on the occasion to M. de Fontenelle, which was universally admired. The duchess of Maine, having discovered the writer in the person of her waiting-woman, employed her, from that time, in all her entertainments given at Sceaux, and treated her as a confidante. Thus encouraged, she wrote verses for some of the pieces acted at Sceaux, drew up the plans of others, and was consulted in all. She was involved in the disgrace incurred by the duchess, her patroness, during the regency, and was kept two years a prisoner in the Bastile. On her release, the duchess found her a husband in M. de Staal, lieutenant in the Swiss guard, having previously refused the learned, but then too aged, Dacier. She died in 1750; and some Memoirs of her Life, written by herself, were soon after published in 3 vols., 12mo. They contain nothing of much importance, but are composed in a pure and elegant style, and are very en47 VOL. XI. tertaining. A fourth volume has since appeared, consisting of two comedies acted at Sceaux, entitled L'Engouement, and La Mode. This lady, who, even by her own description, did not abound in personal attractions, was, nevertheless, engaged in various gallantries or amours more or less sentimental. Being asked how she would treat such matters in her Life, "I will paint myself en buste," was the reply. Her Memoirs have been poorly translated into English. STABAT MATER; a celebrated Latin church song, in terzines, which is sung in the Catholic church, particularly on the festival of the Seven Sorrows of Mary, and generally during the services in Lent. Some consider one of the popes (John XXII, or one of the Gregories) as its author; but, according to the most probable opinion, it was written by the Minorite Jacobus de Benedictis, generally called Jacoponus, who lived in the thirteenth century, a learned jurist, whom the death of his wife induced to enter, in 1268, the order of the Tertiarii, and to give himself up to the severest penances, which terminated in insanity. He died in 1306. The words have received several changes. The best composers of church music have employed their talents upon it. The best compositions are those of Palestrina (for eight voices), of Pergolesi (for two voices, with an accompaniment) and Astorga. Among the later composers of this beautiful piece are Haydn, Winter, Neukomm, and Stunz (a very excellent composition). The Stabat Mater is one of those Latin songs of the early church which breathe a truly poetical and sacred enthusiasm, and cannot be generally known in this country. We, therefore, give it at length, as we have done the Dies Ira. Stabat mater dolorosa, O! quam tristis et afflicta, Mater Unigeniti. Quis est homo qui non fieret Pro peccatis suæ gentis, Et flagellis subditum ; Dum emisit spiritum. Eia mater, fons amoris ! Fac, ut tecum lugeam. Sancta mater! istud agas, Cordi meo valide. Fac me vere tecum flere, Donec ego vixero. In planctu desidero. Virgo virginum præclara ! Fac me tecum plangere; Fac me plagis vulnerari, Ob amorem filii. Fac me cruce custodiri, STABLE. (See Herculaneum.) STACCATO (Italian, separated), in music, is designated by a few small dots or dashes over the notes, which are then to be played more or less abruptly, and uncon nected with each other. course of a gymnasium was, originally called stadium, and was of a certai length, whence was derived the name of the measure. It consisted of an oblong causeway, open at one end, and terminated at the other by a semicircle. The two sides, running parallel with each other were, likewise, enclosed; and from these three enclosed sides the seats of the spectators rose step-wise. STADT; the German word for tour and city: hence many geographical names are compounds of this word or stad. STADTHOLDER, in the republic of the United Netherlands; the commander-inchief of the military forces (Dutch, stad houder, governor). The title was derived from the period when Spain and Burgundy bad dominion in that country. The United Netherlands were then under a govern or-general, and the separate provinces had particular governors. After becoming dependent, the republic retained the othe of stadtholder, partly from gratitude to th house of Nassau-Orange, but chiefly t secure the obedience of the people, whic would not have been rendered to the states while their authority was new, an not yet confirmed. Philip II, on leaving the Netherlands, had intrusted the gov ernment of Holland, Zealand and Utrecht, to William I, prince of Orange; but when the duke of Alva arrived in the Netherlands, in 1567, at the head of the Spanish forces, with the purpose spreading the Catholic faith by fire an sword, William retired to Germany escape the threatening danger. But, be ing proceeded against during his absence he took up arms to deliver the Netherlands from the tyranny of Alva. Tie first attempt failed; but, after the capture of Briel, in 1572, by the Gueux (q. v.), for tune favored the Dutch arms. Most of the cities of Holland and Zealand joined the prince against the Spaniards, and he was once more acknowledged royal stadtholder in Holland, Zealand and Utrecht Two years afterwards, the two first of these provinces committed the gover ment to him during the war. But the pow ers of this government were extremely indefinite: orders were issued at one time the name of the king of Spain; at anoth STADIUM; an ancient measure of length, about equal to a furlong, or the eighth of a mile. It was six hundred feet in length; but, as the foot was different, the stadium, also, differed exceedingly. The most known measures of this name were the little stadium of Aristotle, of 19}; the stadium of Cleomedes, of 13.91; the Pythier, in that of the gentry and cities; some an or Delphian, of 12.79; the stadium of Eratosthenes, of 11.64; that of Herodotus, or the nautical or Persian stadium, of 11.12; the Olympic, of 10.1; the Phileterian, of 9; and the great stadium (called, », the Alexandrian or the Egyptian), of > a geographical mile.-The race times in the name of the prince of Orange and of the gentry and cities; and some times in the name of the prince alone. This fluctuation continued even after the accession of Utrecht (1579), till the authority of the king of Spain was wholly shaken off, in 1581. In 1582, the powers |