amount of two millions of francs, the sum which her father had left in the royal treasury at the time of his dismission from office. Surrounded by a happy domestic circle-a beloved husband, an excellent son, and an amiable and highly accomplished daughter, who was united to a man of distinguished merit, the duke de Broglio (see Broglio)-esteemed and courted by the most eminent men of the capital, and cheered with the hope of seeing her country's wounds healed by a free constitution, she lived in Paris, with the exception of a short absence, till her death. Until her last sickness, she was employed on her Mémoires et Considérations sur les principaux Événements de la Révolution Française (Paris, 1819, 3 vols.). Few persons were more favorably situated than Mad. de Staël for appreciating the importance of the events of which she treated. She had three principal objects in this work-the justification of her father's public life, a faithful delineation of the course and character of the revolution, and a developement of the political principles, consonant to the spirit of the age. See the remarks on it in Bailleul's Examen (2 vols., 1819). The completion of this work was interrupted by her death. She had suffered much since the beginning of 1817, and in the summer of that year her disease took a decided character. Although reluctant to leave her friends, and dreading, as she said to her physician, the thought of the dissolution of her body, she was not afraid to die. To the last moment she retained her tranquillity, and expressed her hope of again meeting her father. "I think," she said one day, as if awaking from a dream, "I think I know what the passage from life to death is, and I am convinced that the goodness of God makes it easy; our thoughts become confused, and the pain is not great." In the morning of July 14, 1817, she replied to the question of her nurse, whether she had slept, "Soundly and deeply." These were her last words. Her body was embalmed, and deposited in the family vault at Coppet.-See the Notice sur le Caractère et les Écrits de Mad. de Staël, by Mad. Necker de Saussure, prefixed to the complete edition of her works, published at Paris, in 1821, in 17 vols.; and Schlosser's Parallel between Mad. de Staël and Mad. Roland (in German and French, 1830). The taste of Mad. de Staël is not altogether correct; her style is irregular, and has too much pretension; her attempts at effect and her occasional

tendency to exaggeration sometimes mislead her judgment, and cause her to give a false coloring to facts. But in all her works we find original and profound thought, great acuteness, a lively imagination, a philosophical insight into the human heart, and into the truths of politics and literature. Her son Augustus, baron de Staël, born 1789, died 1827, is favorably known by his Notice sur M. Necker (1820), and his valuable Lettres sur l'Angleterre. He left a son, the only descendant of Mad. de Staël.

In

STAFF (from the staff formerly borne by officers in high command), in military affairs, means generally the officers whose command extends over several bodies of troops, of which each has its particular officers. Thus the general staff (in French, état majeur général) is composed of the general, the chief and the officers of the staff, the commanders of artillery, and of the corps of engineers, and the heads of the different departments of military administration. The staff of a division comprises a lieutenant-general, majorgenerals, and the officers of the staff, of the artillery, engineers and administration. The staff of a regiment comprises the colonel, the superior officers, adjutant-majors, quarter-masters, &c. England, the chaplain and surgeon of the regiment also belong to it. The military divisions, fortified places, &c., have their staffs composed in a similar manner to those of the armies. Under the French empire, the staff of the emperor had quite a peculiar organization, originating in his always commanding in person, and directing, in time of peace, the whole military machine personally. In Prussia, the staff is employed in preparing the maps of the kingdom, and in similar duties. In time of peace, the offcers of the staff are attached in part to the various divisions of the army. In Austria, the staff is employed in the military topography of the empire: trigonometrical and geodesical operations; the military, geographical and statistical description of the provinces; in fortifications; in the care of the archives, &c. The English army has a very good staff, which has produced an excellent military map of the part of England along the coast from Portsmouth to the Thames. The corps is under the command of the quarter-master-general of the British forces. The officers employed in it are examined, and go through a course of studies. (See Force Militaire de la Grande Bretagne, by Charles Dupin.

STAFF, BISHOP's. (See Crosier.) STAFFA; a small island of the Hebrides, celebrated for its basaltic pillars and its natural caverns, particularly the cave of Fingal; nine miles north of Iona, fifteen west of Mull. It is of an oval form, one and a half miles in circuit, presenting an uneven table-land, terminating nearly all round by cliffs of variable height. The greatest elevation is 144 feet. The surface is covered by a rich soil and luxuriant grass, affording excellent pasture for a herd of black cattle; but there is no house on the island. A considerable portion of the precipitous face of Staffa is in a columnar form: the highest point of this face is 112 feet above high-water mark. There are several remarkable caves, as Great cave, 224 feet long; Boat cave, 150 feet long; Mackinmon's, or the Scart, or Cormorant's cave; and, above all, Fingal's cave, which is celebrated, by those who have visited it, in terms of high admiration. (See Fingal's Cave.) STAG. (See Deer.) STAGGERS. (See Stomach Staggers, and Sturdy.)

STAHL, George Ernest, a German physician and chemist, born at Anspach, in 1660, studied, at Jena, under Wedelius; and, in 1687, became physician to the duke of Saxe-Weimar. In 1691, he was chosen second professor of medicine at Halle, and rendered his name famous over all Germany by his academical prelections and his publications. He was, in 1700, elected a member of the Academia Curiosorum Nature. His fame procured him the appointment of physician to the *king of Prussia, in 1716; and, going to Berlin, he died there, in 1734. Stahl was one of the most illustrious medical philosophers of his age: his name marks the commencement of a new era in chemistry. He was the author of the doctrine which explains the principal chemical =phenomena by the agency of phlogiston; and though his system was, in a great measure, overturned by the discoveries of Priestley, Lavoisier and others, it nevertheless displays powerfully the genius of the inventor. This theory maintained its ground for more than half a century, and was received and supported by some of the most eminent men which Europe had produced. (See Chemistry, and Orygen.) He was also the proposer of a theory of medicine, founded on the principle of the dependence of the state of the body on the mind; in consequence of which he affirmed that every action of the muscles is a voluntary effort of the

mind, whether attended with consciousness or not. His principal works are Experimenta et Observationes Chymica et Physica (1731, 8vo.); Disputationes Medica (2 vols., 4to.); Theoria Medica vera (1737); Fundamenta Chymia dogmatica et experimentalis (3 vols., 4to.).

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STAINER, OF STEINER, Jacob; a famous maker of stringed instruments, Hall, in Tyrol, about the middle of the seventeenth century, and a pupil of the famous violin maker Amati of Cremona. He made, principally, violins. They are rare, and bring 300 ducats apiece. He became insane towards the end of his life. He died in or before 1684. STALACTITES. (See Appendix.) STALL. (See Prebend.) STAMBOL. (See Constantinople.) STAMMERING. (See Stuttering.) STAMP ACT. (See United States.) STAMPED PAPER, for the purpose of raising a tax, is a Dutch invention. De Basville, or Baville, in his Mémoires pour servir a l'Histoire de Languedoc, affirms that stamped paper was introduced as early as the year 537, by the emperor Justinian; but Beckmann, in his History of Inventions, shows this opinion to be erroneous. The states of the United Provinces promised a reward for the invention of a new tax, which would press lightly on the subjects, and yet yield much to the government; and stamped paper was proposed. It was legally introduced, Aug. 13, 1624, by the states, and was gradually imitated by other governments. In the year 1831, the stamps produced to the English government £6,484,580.

STANDARD, OF FLAG; originally, a signal, erected on a pole, spear or lance. Such signals were used for different purposes, and were known among the Hebrews as early as the time of Moses, and adorned with emblems. Ephraim carried a steer; Benjamin a wolf, &c. We find something similar among the Greeks: the Athenians had an owl, the Thebans a sphinx, on their standards, by the raising or lowering of which they gave the signal for attack or retreat. The standard of Romulus was a bundle of hay tied on a pole. In place of this, a hand, and, finally, an eagle, were substituted. The real standards came first into use under the Roman emperors, who retained the eagle: they were also ornamented with dragons and silver balls. The standard of the cavalry consisted of a square piece of purple cloth, decorated with gold, on which the figure of a dragon was afterwards represented. The Germans fastened a stream

er to a lance, which the duke carried in front of the army. From band, the name which this bore, comes our English word banner (bandum, banderium, bandiera). Afterwards, a large cloth was used, ornamented with emblems and inscriptions. The imperial French armies, in imitation of the Romans, had an eagle for an ensign, but of a different shape from the Roman eagle. (See Eagle.)

STANDARD OF MONEY; the degree of the purity or fineness of the metal contained in the coins of a particular country, and the quantity or weight of such metal contained in these coins. We have given a comparative view of the standard of money, in different countries, in the table contained in the article Coins, to which, and to the article Circulating Medium, we refer the reader. The alloy in coins is reckoned of no value: it is allowed to save the trouble and expense of refining the metals to the highest degree of purity, and to render the coins harder, and, therefore, less liable to be worn or rubbed. The standard is sometimes arbitrarily changed by governments, as a means of raising money, either by simply altering the denomination of the coins, without changing their weight or purity, or by issuing coins of baser metal, or by reducing the weight of the coin. But experience has taught that such changes are not only frauds upon the public creditor, and a source of confusion and distress to the people at large, but that they afford only a temporary relief to the public treasury, at the expense of new embarrassments. The present standard of the English coins has remained unchanged since the conquest, except for a period of sixteen years, from thirty-fourth of Henry VIII to seeond of Elizabeth. That of the gold coins was changed in the eighteenth of Henry VIII; previously to which the standard had been twenty-three carats three and a half grains fine, and one half grain alloy. It was then fixed at twenty-two carats fine and two carats alloy, The former was called the old standard, the latter the new standard or crown gold, be cause crowns were first coined of it. The practice of making gold coins of both these standards was continued, however, till 1688 since which all the gold coined has been of the new standard. The colus of the old standard remained in circula

• The party of gold is est mated by an Aby

a wogat ca vi a o Geld of De *d pop a sada de enger carats

tion until 1732, when they were withdrawn. But the standard has been degraded by the reduction of the weight of the coin, so that a pound weight of silver. which, at the time of the conquest, was coined into twenty shillings, was, in 1601, coined into sixty-two, and, in 1816, into sixty-six shillings. In other countries, the degradation of the coin has been still greater. But it would far exceed our limits to give a detailed statement of the facts, which are, however, of great importance to readers of history.

STANHOPE, James, first earl, was born in Herefordshire, in 1673, and accompanied his father, who was sent envoy extraordinary to the court of Spain early in William's reign. He continued in Spain some years, made the tour of France and Italy, served as a volunteer in Flanders, and received the commission of colonel at the age of twenty-two. He served as brigadier-general under the earl of Peterborough at the capture of Barcelona. In 1708, he was made major-general and commander-in-chief in Spain, and, the same year, he reduced the island of Minorca. In a subsequent campaign, in 1711, he was made prisoner, but was exchanged the following year. On the accession of George I, he was appointed one of the secretaries of state. In 1716, he attended the king to Hanover, where he was principally concerned in the formation of the alliance concluded with France and the states-general, which removed the pretender beyond the Alps. The next year. he was appointed first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. In 1718, he became secretary of state, and was created earl Stanhope. He died in 1721.

STANHOPE, Philip Dormer. (See Chesterfield.)

STANHOPE, Charles, the third earl, was born in 1753. He received the early part of his education at Eton, and finished it at Geneva, where his genius led him to pay a clos› attention to the mathematics; and such was his progress that he obtained a prize from the society of Stockholm for a memoir on the pendulum. In 1774, he stood candidate for Westminster withou success; but was introduced, by the earl of Shelburne, into parliament as a mem ber for the borough of Wycombe, which he represented until 1786, when the death of his father called him to the house of peers. He was one of the many English politicians who regarded with pleasure the dawn of the French revolution; but, what was much more extraordinary in a

peer by birth, he openly avowed republican sentiments, and went so far as to lay by the external ornaments of the peerage. He was also a frequent speaker against the war; and, although singular in many of his opinions, a strong vein of sense and humor often qualified his statements of peculiar views. As a man of science, he ranked high, both as an inventor and patron, and, among other things, was the author of a method for securing buildings from fire, an arithmetical machine, a new printing press, a monochord for tuning musical instruments, and a vessel to sail against wind and tide. He was twice married; first, to lady Hester Pitt, daughter of the first earl of Chatham, by whom he bad three daughters; and, secondly, to Miss Grenville, by whom he had three sons. This scientific, ingenious, but eccentric nobleman published several philosophical and a few political tracts. He died December 14, 1816.

STANHOPE, Henry Philip, the present earl, son of Charles, earl Stanhope, was born in the year 1781, and professed principles diametrically opposite to those of his father, against whom he even carried on a suit in equity. On the opening of parliament, in 1818, he made a speech, in which he recommended that France should be dismembered, to prevent her from troubling, in future, the tranquillity of Europe. In the investigation, with respect to the conduct of the late queen Caroline, his lordship voted against the bill of pains and penalties. His eldest son, known as viscount Mahon, is the author of a life of Belisarius, and of a History of the War for the Spanish Succession (1832).

STANHOPE, lady Hester; an English lady, a niece of Pitt, famous for her singular mode of life. She has resided in Syria for about twenty years, and, in 1827, was living about eight miles from Sidon, at a villa of her own construction, called D'Joun. It is situated on a solitary mountain, remote from any village. Doctor Madden, who went to see her in 1827, gives the following account of his visit:

Every thing without was wild and barbarous, and all within confessed the hand of taste. I was led from the court into a little garden, at the extremity of which there was a sort of kiosk, consisting of two rooms-a sitting room and a bed room-furnished, in the European style, with chairs and tables. The room into which I was ushered was in the Arab style; and at the farther corner I perceived a tall figure, in the male attire of the country, which was lady Hester herself.

For seven hours there never was a pause in the conversation. Every subject connected with Oriental learning was discussed, and every observation of her ladyship's evinced a degree of genius that astonished me, and was couched in such forcible and energetic language as to impress me with the idea that I was conversing with a woman of no ordinary intellect. The peculiarity of her opinions in no wise detracted from the general profundity of her reflections; and, though I could not assent to many of her notions regarding astral influence and astrological science, I had no reason to alter my opinion of her exalted talents, though they were unfortunately directed to very speculative studies. Nothing is more difficult than to ascertain the point where eccentricity terminates and insanity begins at all events, I am sure that whatever may be the eccentricity of lady Hester Stanhope, her mind is unimpaired, and that few women can boast of more real genius,and none of more active benevolence." Lady Hester showed doctor Madden a horse which she said was of the race of Solomon's favorite steed, saddled by the hand of God (there was an indentation in the back, resembling a Turkish saddle). The rich presents which she made to the Turkish pachas gave her a great influence over them for a time; but at the time of doctor Madden's visit, this was greatly diminished. The Bedouins, however, or wild Arabs, whom her wisdom and kindness had won, still continued to look up to her, not only as a benefactor, but as a being of a superior order. Her belief in magic and astrology may also have contributed to extend her influence. She is a woman of great personal bravery as well as moral courage, and has encountered the robbers of the desert at the head of her servants, sword in hand.

STANISLAUS I, king of Poland, was born at Lemberg, in 1677. His family name was Leczinski, or Lesczinski, and his father held the important post of grand treasurer to the crown. He very early displayed indications of an amiable and estimable character, and at the age of twenty-two was intrusted with an embassy to the Ottoman court. In 1704, being then palatine of Posnania, and general of Great Poland, he was deputed by the assembly of the states at Warsaw to wait upon Charles XII of Sweden, who had invaded the kingdom, with a view of dethroning Augustus of Saxony. (See Augustus II.) In a conference with the

Swedish monarch, he so rapidly acquired his esteem, that Charles immediately resolved to raise him to the throne of Poland, which he effected at an election held, in the presence of the Swedish general, on the 27th July, 1704, Stanislaus being then in his twenty-seventh year. He was, however, soon after driven from Warsaw by his rival Augustus; but another change brought him back to that capital, where he was crowned, with his wife, in October, 1705; and the next year Augustus was compelled solemnly to abdicate. (See Charles XII) The fatal defeat of his patron Charles XII, at Pultowa, in 1709, again obliged him to retreat into Sweden, where he endeavored to join Charles XII, at Bender, in disguise; but, being detected, he was held captive in that town until 1714. Being then suffered to depart, he repaired to DeuxPonts, where he was joined by his family, and remained until the death of Charles XII, in 1719, when the court of France afforded him a retreat at Weissemburg, in Alsace. He remained in obscurity until 1725, when his daughter, the princess Mary, was unexpectedly selected as a wife by Louis XV (q. v.), king of France. On the death of Augustus, in 1733, an attempt was made by the French court to replace Stanislaus on the throne of Poland; but, although he had a party who supported him and proclaimed him king, his competitor, the electoral prince of Saxony, being aided by the emperors of Germany and Russia, he was obliged to retire. (See Poland, and Augustus III.) He endured this, like every other reverse of fortune, with great resignation, and, at the peace of 1736, formally abdicated his claim to the kingdom of Poland, on condition of retaining the title of king, and being put in possession for life of the duchies of Lorraine and Bar. Thenceforward he lived as the sovereign of a small country, which he rendered happy by the exercise of virtues which acquired him the appellation of "Stanislaus the Beneticent." He not only relieved his people from excessive imposts, but, by strict economy, was able to found many useful charitable establishments, and to patronise the arts and sciences. He was himself fond of literature, and wrote some treatises on philosophy, morals and politics, which were published under the title of Euvres du Philosophe bienfaisant (4 vols., 8vo., 1765). He died in 1766.

STANISLAUS II, PONIATOWSKI, king of Poland. (See Poniatowski, Stanislaus.)

STANITZA (village, place of encamp

ment); a word found in numerous Ras geographical names belonging to the regions inhabited by the Cossacs.

STANNARIES, COURT OF. (See Courts STANZA (Italian, a stand): a stropie uz number of verses connected with ea other, terminating with a full post or pause, and forming one of the reg divisions of a poem. It was former sometimes used to denote an entire ry poem of one strophe. Thus Dic speaks in his work De vulgari Eloquentis (book ii. chap. 3 et seq.) of cantiones (rom zoni) and of stanti (stanze Stanzes are said to have been first introduced from the Italian into French poetry, about the year 1580, and thence passed into Engin The principal Italian stanza—the eczema rima-originated in Sicily, where ports made use of it even in the thirteenth century: thence it passed into Italy, and there received, in the fourteenth century, from Boccaccio, that regular form which a has ever since retained, as the standar division of the Italian epic. Boccaccio first made use of it in his Theseide. Plitian improved it further. Trissina, # the sixteenth century, wrote a narrative poem in blank verse, but had no sa tors. The oltara rima, or stanza of Buecaccio (as we may call it, in contradastmetion to the Sicilian, which forms a cuttinued chain of alternate rhymes, without the double rhyme in the two last lusc sists of eight iambic verses of eleven sy da bles each, with female rhymes (q. v., of which the six first are alternate, but the two last are successive, and thus give mi the whole an agreeable conclusion. These two last lines, however, easily seduce the poet into attempts at pointed expressone, unbecoming a serious epic, asi fram which even Tasso is not always free. Be ardo, and particularly Ariosto and Tason, are the great masters of the ottara rima. Gothe, Schlegel, Tieck and others tave used it with great success in Gerinan, w the change required by the genus of the German language, viz. that they en smus male and female rhymes in the fire lines, but the two last always end w female rhymes. (For the SpenMEN stanza, see Spenser.)

STANZE. (See Raphad, and Fee STAPLE; a public market, wi merchants are obliged to carry ther for sale. Various derivations have suggested; as, 1. staples, found in the puarian laws, and signifying a plac where justice is administered; 2 German stapelen, to put in a beap: & sta bile emporium used in the civil law sty