The consistent Catholic, therefore, endeavors to ascertain accurately this tradition; i. e. to guard the purity of his faith. The first means for the attainment of this object was the authority of the Sacred Scriptures. They obtain authority as the embodying of tradition; necessarily subjected, however, to the judgment and the exposition of the church, on which, indeed, all tradition, and even Scripture, is, according to him, dependent. By this authority of the Bible, the falsification of traditions has been, in a great measure, prevented. In the controversies concerning tradition, and concerning the accounts and the meaning of the Bible, the belief of the church always decided. The actual belief of the church universal is, necessarily, the Catholic's last appeal; but what this is may be the subject of controversy. There is, in this case, no better remedy than to assemble the church, and let her express herself as is done in councils. The Catholic doubts not that the same Holy Spirit which is promised to the church, even till the end of time, will assist the church, when assembled, in rightly expressing her faith. The council creates no articles of faith. The whole church is unable to do this. The council merely expresses what the church believes, and declares that the church has preserved such a truth. The church, in the possession of a revelation handed down by tradition, must declare herself infallible, The established religious faith necessarily excludes a conviction of the possibility of the truth of the opposite opinion. If, therefore, the revelation, the tradition, is in itself infallible (as the Protestant holds the Bible to be infallible), should the church, which expresses this tradition, be less infallible? The church explains the Bible in accordance with tradition, of which it is a part and a copy. What the council expresses as a doctrine of faith is a canon. A canon is that which, according to the judgment of the church, is expressed in the Bible, and has always, and every where, and by all, been believed (semper et ubique et ab omnibus creditum). Whenever the church finds one of these requisitions wanting, it establishes no canon. In this way the Bible and tradition are intimately blended. If it is asked, Why does the church consider those historical truths which have been handed down by tradition, and attested by the church assembled, as real truths? the answer of the Catholic is, Because her institution is of divine origin, and because a revelation has been delivered to her.

Reason here objects, that the conclusion is obtained by arguing in a circle. The Catholic replies, that the objection is made because reason is desirous of hav ing that proved which, resting on itself, is capable of no proof, and which, if it might have been proved and confirmed by evidence external to itself, would fall to pieces, because it would then be necessary to place reason above revelation. How can the church be censured for laying claim to infallibility, for rejecting the criticism of reason? If Christianity is a revelation, faith can be grounded only upon the testimony of the church (which, by means of tradition, hands down revelation, the sacred books, and regulations), and not upon the free investigation of reason, which protests against authority. That one council should, with respect to doctrine, contradict another, is an event which is, and must be, inconceivable to the Catholic. This is the fundamental view of Catholicism. There can, therefore, be only one infallible church.

II. The Doctrines of Catholicism. The Catholic church is the community of saints, which has one faith, one charity, one hope. It believes in the doctrine of the Trinity, the redemption, &c. It believes in free will, immortality, and the moral law. The church is to restore the kingdom of God. The first man was created immediately by God, free from sin, adorned with innocence and holiness, and possessed of a claim to eternal life. This first man sinned, and thereby lost his innocence, holiness, and claim to eternal life. By his sins, all his posterity became sinners before God, and, therefore, in like manner, lost eternal life. In this state of moral corruption, man was not to remain. Called to the kingdom of God, he must become holy and perfect, as God himself is holy and perfect. Revelation assists him in the attainment of this high destination; first, by informing him of what it is necessary for him to know (by enlightening mankind), and, secondly, by an extraordinary internal sanctification (by the consecration of mankind). But man actually attains to his high destination by faith in these doctrines and this sanctification, and by a course of life uninterruptedly continued and regulated accordingly. The Catholic believes in the immortality of the soul, and that it will hereafter be clothed with its body, which God will raise in perfection; further, that the condition of man in a future state will

We continue to give the statement of the

Catholic writer.

vary according as he has done good or evil. The wicked are for ever deprived of the sight of God. How those images in the sacred books, which represent this state to the senses, are to be understood, is not decided by the church. The good enjoy God for ever, and are blessed. The state of the good and the wicked commences immediately after death. A middle state is admitted for those souls which were not entirely estranged from the Eternal, which, therefore, in the other world, still have a hope of ultimately becoming united with the Creator. (See Purgatory.) The happy spirits, in the church triumphant, have not ceased to be connected with their brethren in the church militant. A band of love unites both worlds. (See Saints.) Every one is rewarded according to those works which he has freely performed, although, at the same time, he has followed the influences of grace; but, as the Eternal foreknows the actions of men, so he foreknows, likewise, who will attain to happiness. (Controversy concerning predestination, decided by the council of Trent, session VI, canons 12, 15, 17.) A religious mind conceives the world to be entirely dependent upon God, and so revelation represents it. According to this, the world was created by God. Whether the Mosaic cosmogony is to be literally understood, the church has by no means decided. God preserves and governs the world. Hereafter, the world is to be destroyed. Man having been thus instructed by the church respecting divine things, men and the world, it is necessary, in the second place, that he should be sanctified and consecrated by her. "The Christian standard demands not only an enlightened man, but one who is adorned with holiness; a man who is repelled from God by no polluting stain, but is drawn towards him by a pure nature. It requires a man who comes into connexion with God, not merely by a purely moral intercourse, in a spiritual way, but who, surrounded by the light of God himself, sees and enjoys him, and is exalted above sin, suffering and death." The Founder of our religion, therefore, in the first place, made a universal atonement for mankind; secondly, ordained means for their purification and sanctification, according to their various necessities. The Savior, by bis death, procured the pardon of sin for all men, justified them, and put it into their power to make themselves partakers of his elevation. Now the particular means for the purification and the sancti

fication of men are the seven sacraments. (q. v.) These sacraments are the essence of the Catholic mysteries. Without mysteries, man is cold and insensible. The Catholic mysteries, however, differ from the Protestant in this, that the former have a more universal and more settled character, while the latter are suffered to take their tone from the feelings of individuals. The centre of the Catholic mysteries is the sacrament of the Lord's supper, whereby believers join in real communion with the Lord. For all conditions and wants, she has made provision, and in her bosom has prepared a suitable asylum for every one. A man would greatly err, however, if he should believe that the church favored mysteries, and attached herself to the arts, merely for the purpose of attracting adherents, and concealing internal defects. She needs it not. She offers words of life. Her system of belief is pure and consistent, and her morality is also pure. Indeed, the peculiar faith of the Catholic church has so often been disfigured by Protestants, that it is not strange that even the welleducated Protestant pities the honest Catholic, on account of the doctrines and ordinances falsely attributed to the Catholic church.

III. The ecclesiastical Constitution of Catholicism, or the Catholic Church. [It would be impossible even to mention all the objections which have been started against the organization of the Catholic church in the present work; but its historical importance makes it necessary to be known; and it is but fair to let the Catholics give their own statement on this subject. We therefore proceed with the Catholic article.] It was the design of Christ to establish a church, and certainly one which should endure. The object of the church is, through Christ, to reconcile fallen humanity with God. The church, which is to accomplish this object, is a spiritual and visible society. As a spiritual society, it stands in relation to Christ. As such, it is the union, the community, of all her living members with God the Father, through one Christ, in one Spirit of love. The apostle Paul represents these ideas particularly under two forms-under the form of a body, and that of a building. 1. He represents it under the form of a body. (Eph. iv; 1 Cor. xii, 4-30, xiii, 1—13, xiv, 1—40.) According to this, the church is a spiritual organization under one Head, Christ, in which no member is to remain isolated from the body, but each must necessarily

is salvation only in Christ. From Christ he derives all his gifts.-We shall now give a more particular explanation of the points of difference between this and other ecclesiastical systems. The church could not be one with the state. Religion was to be preached to all nations, and spread to the farthest boundaries of the world. States are subject to the vicistudes of time. They may be, and indeed have been, hostile to religion. It was on this account that Christ said, “My kingdom is not of this world." The churen, therefore, cannot recognise princes as bishops, as the Lutheran church doe She can, in general, allow them no influence in the management of church affairs; and where states have arrogated to themselves such influence, a reaction has soon followed, which has often passed as far to the opposite extreme. The regulation of the church could, also, not be made dependent on the religious communities, It is impossible for learners to define what instructions they ought to receive. Faith, in the church, does not ongate with the low and pass to the high, but it originates with the high and passes to the low; not through the investigations of the communities, but through the instruction and the doctrines of salvation coinmunicated by the apostles and bishops, The apostle Paul says, in the First Episte to the Corinthians, that he was commi sioned as an apostle by God, and by no means that he was ordained by Christian communities, which he, in fact, was już establishing. The apostles only, Christian communities, were commazacieni to go into the world, and to teach all people. The former only, not the latter, were promised assistance. The Sacred Scriptures were by no means sufficierat s preserve the true doctrine unchanged There was need of the living Word, og the ministry, and of the assistance of the Spirit. Know this first," says 2 Peter, 、 20, "that no prophecy of the Scripture is of any private interpretation." The ap vo tles exercised the power of the church They held their first council at Jerusae 123 "It has pleased the Holy Spirit and said they, when they sent their deere to Christian communities. This power, bow. ever, was no prerogative of the apexet ju individually, but a power which they pan. sessed by virtue of their office, and whức by was to be extended to their success and that of necessity. This is proved, not only by the express assertion of Jes who says, in Matthew xvi, 18, that h will build his church upon a rock, ami the

make common cause with the rest, to accomplish the objects of the Spirit. 2. He represents it to us under the form of a house, a palace, a temple, a divine building. (Eph. ii, 19-22; 1 Tim. iii, 15.) Further, the church is not merely a spiritual, but a visible, society, since it exists upon earth as a society of visible combatants, engaged in warfare; and also, according to the figures of the apostle, is compared to a body, a temple, a palace, a house of God; and, finally, since Christ, though he operates invisibly by his Spirit, inust also operate through visible organs, however named, whether apostles, teachers or pastors. The visible church of Christ, contemplated as the visible body of Christ, is necessarily a union, a combination, a community, of all the members under one visible head, which has no other object than to effect and maintain a union with Christ, and, through Christ, with God the Father. This visible union of all the members in the visible church of Christ, can be effected only by the close connexion of individual churches with their immediate pastors, and of these with their superior pastors, who must also be connected with the centre of union, and thus maintain a connexion with Christ, the invisible Head, and, through Christ, with the Father. This intimate connexion with the centre of union necessarily presupposes that the visible head of all the church is in possession of the preeminence in authority and jurisdiction. This primacy, according to all the traditions of the apostles, rests in the person of the Roman bishop, as the successor of St. Peter, who Christ made the rock of his church, that is, the immovable centre of his visible church. (Matt. xvi, 16.) The union of the church, by the connexion of individ ual churches with their pastors, and of these with their superior pastors, and of these last with the supreme pastor and head of the church, presupposes a hierarchy. This hierarchy is spiritual; spirit tal in its origin, tendency, and mode of operation, though its actions must be visable. It is not, however, to be believed, because the Catholic church is a hierarchy, that she has any other head than Christ. He who is the Foundation of the world, is also the sure and proper foundation of the Catholic faith. The connexon which Christians have with the visible centre of union has for its highest object a connexion with Christ, the invisible Centre of union. To the Catholic, Christ is all in all. Col. ii, 2.) For him there

gates of hell shall not prevail against it; and, in another place, promises to remain with them, even to the end of the world, by means of his Comforter (evidently referring to the power which preserves and governs the church); but it also naturally follows, from the plan of Christ, to estabhish a church universal, which would necessarily require the extension of this power to the successors of the apostles. The apostles, therefore, actually established bishops in every place; and, after their death, these bishops conducted the church, which continued to remain one and the same, until, in modern times, it entered into the heads of the reformers, to attack its constitution: hence the Catholic church has been preserved from the fate of Protestant churches, which, for want of such a constitution, have been lost in isolated communities. The bishops and successors of the apostles now form an association like that of the apostles. "There is one bishopric," says Cyprian De Unitate Ecclesia), "of which a part is held by each individual bishop, who is also a partaker of the whole in common with his brethren" (Episcopatus unus est, cujus a singulis in solidum pars tenetur). Therefore, as the rays of the sun are many, but there is only one light; and as the branches of a tree are many, but make only one tree, fastened to the ground by a strong root; and as from one fountain many brooks may flow, and yet remain one at their source; so the church, which, by means of her prolific increase, extends herself in great numbers, far around, is also one. Every bishop is not merely a bishop of the world, but also of his own diocese. He is not an ecumenical or universal bishop, as John the Faster, of Constantinople, maintained of himself a title which even Gregory declined. The diocese of the bishop originally consisted of the Christian community of a city. From this place, the bishop spread Christianity, and organized new Christian communities, to which he gave pastors, as his delegates, to discharge a part of his official duties. These pastors, and the presbytery of the capital, formed the bishop's very influential council. They gave their opinions in the synod of the diocese; and the presbytery of the capital, afterwards called the cathedral chapter, was the representative of those pastors who did not assemble. The bishop only had episcopal power, properly so called. Pastors and presbyters were only an emanation from him. That bishops and priests, however, did not, as the Protestant systems of pres

byterianism maintain, constitute only one order under different names, follows, not only from tradition, but, with uncommon clearness, from the genuine epistles of St. Ignatius, who lived about 107, and was a pupil of the apostles. In these, the bishop, as one ordained by God, is always distinguished from the assembly of priests. That, moreover, the order of priests was generally distinguished from the laity, by consecration, and by a divine mission, from the commencement of the church, follows from tradition, and also from the epistles of Paul to Timothy and Titus, and several other of his epistles. (Concerning the relation of the pope to bishops, and to the church in general, see Pope.) It will be sufficient to observe, here, that the church forms a kind of confederacy, in order to maintain her union, through the bishop at Rome, as successor to the chief of the apostles-through him whom Cyprian has called the centrum unitatis of the church; that the pope, by divine appointment, is the organ of the church; and that, at the assemblies of the church, he presides as first among equals (primus inter pares). Archbishops, patriarchs, &c., are not essential parts of the hierarchy, but have only become incidentally attached to it.

ROMAN CEMENTS. (See Cements.)
ROMAN KING. (See German Empire.)
ROMAN LAW. (See Civil Law.)
ROMAN LITERATURE. (See Rome.)

ROMANCE (SO called from the Romance or Romanic language); a fictitious narrative in prose or verse, the interest of which turns upon marvellous and uncommon incidents. The name is derived from the circumstance of the romantic compositions of this kind having been written in the vulgar tongues, which were derived from the Roman, at a period when Latin was still the language of literature, law, &c. We have already given some general views of the origin and character of romantic fiction under the head of Novels. The modern European romance was at first metrical in its form, and founded on historical, or what was thought to be historical, tradition. The transition from the rhymed chronicles, which we find in the early periods of modern European history, to the metrical romance, was easy, and much of the material of the latter was derived, with suitable embellishments, from the former. The Anglo-Norman romance Le Brit (1515), written by Wace, was founded on the chronicle of Geoffrey of Monmouth. The Roman de Rose, by the same author, is a fabulous history of the Norman dukes.

In the end of the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth centuries, great numbers of French metrical romances were written in England and Normandy, principally on the subject of Arthur and his knights of the round table, or on classical subjects, such as the Trojan war. The metrical romance was followed by the prose romance, which was founded on the same cycles of events and characters, but with great additions of adventures, machinery, &c. The prose romances were written chiefly during the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and were at first mere versions of the metrical romances. They assumed the tone of history, and pretended to the character of presenting historical facts. They may be divided into romances of chivalry, spiritual or religious romances, comic, political, pastoral, and heroic romances. The romances of chivalry, considered in reference to the personages of whom they treat, form four classes:—-1. Those relating to Arthur and the knights of the round table, and their exploits against the Saxons: among these are Merlin, Sangreal, Lancelot du Lac, Artus, &c. 2. Those connected with Charlemagne and his paladins, in which the enemy against whom the heroes contend are the Saracens: these are Guerin de Monglave, Huon de Bordeaux, &c.; the latter are founded on the fabulous chronicle of Turpin, from which are borrowed the expedition of Charlemagne into Spain, the battle of Roncesvalles, &c.; the former are derived, in a great measure, from the chronicle of Geoffrey of Monmouth. 3. The Spanish and Portuguese romances contain chiefly the adventures of two imaginary families of heroes, Amadis and Palmerin: their opponents are the Turks, and the scene is often in Constantinople. (See Amatis.) 4. The classical romances represent the mythological or historical heroes of antiquity in the guise of romantic fiction; thus we have the Livre de Jason, Vie de Hercule, Alexandre, &c., in which those heroes are completely metamorphosed in to modern knights, The romances of chuvalry are of Anglo-Norman origin, and, though naturalized in the Spanish peninsula, did not obtain that popularity and, influence in Germany, Southern France (see Provencal Poets) and Italy, which they enjoyed in England, Northern France and the peninsula. Italy adopted, indeed, at a later period, the tales of Charlemagne and his peers, which form the subjects of the romantic epics of Boiardo (Orlando Innamorato), Pulci (Morgante Muggiore),

and Ariosto (Orlando Furioso); and thus the fictitious narratives originally composed in metre, and then re-written in prose, were decorated anew with the honors of verse. (See Italian Literature, division Poetry.) The spiritual romance differed from the chivalrous in recording the deaths of martyrs and the miracles of saints, but, in point of style and composition, was not essentially different from it. Among the works of this class are the Golden Legend, the Contes Derots of the French, and one of the most remarkable works of fiction, the Pilgrim's Progress. (See Bunyan.) The comic romance was the production of a later age, when the spirit of chivalry had become extinct, and new forms of society succeeded. Rabelais, Cervantes (whose Don Quixote was the death-blow of the romances of chivalry), Mendoza (q. v.), author of Lazarillo de Tormes, the first romance in the style called gusto picaresco, Scarron (Roman Comique), were the principal writers of this kind of romantic composition. The political romance also forms a class by itself, to which the Cyropedia of Xenophon (q. v.) may be considered to belong; Barclay's Argenis, Telemachus (see Fenelon, and Sethos, are the principal works of this class. In the time of Cervantes, the pastoral romance, founded upon the Diana of Montemayor (q. v.), was prevailing to such an extent as to attract his satire. In imtation of it, D'Urfè wrote his well-known Astree, which gave rise to the heroje romance of the seventeenth century. Gornberville, Calprenede and madame Scuderi composed these insipid and interminable folios, in which the heroines are all models of beauty and perfection, and the heroes live through their long-winded pages for love alone." (See, on the subject of romance in general, Dunlop's History of Romantic Fiction; Ellis's Specimens of Early English Fiction; Panizzi's Essay on the Romantic Narrative Poetry of the Italians, pretixed to his edition of Boiardu and Arisusto (London, 1830). See also the article Romantic, and the works there referred to.)

ROMANIA, RUMELIA, OF RUM-ILL. The name (signifying the country of the Romane) is applied by the Turks to the greater part of the Turkish empire in Europe, and by European writers to that part lying south of the Balkan, comprising the ancient Macedonia, Thrace and previous to the Greek revolution) Greece. (See Turkey in Europe.)

ROMANIC LANGUAGES, OF ROMANCE. In the countries belonging to the Western