Roman empire, where Latin had been in troduced, new dialects were formed at the time of the decline and fall of the empire, from the mixture of Latin with the languages of the barbarians, by whom the countries had been overrun. These were called Romanic idioms, or Romance. In all of them Latin was the basis and chief ingredient, and from them have sprung the languages now prevalent in the South of Europe-the Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and the Rhætian, or Romanic in the narrower sense. Raynouard believes in an original Romanic language, which served as a common stock to the above dialects; but A. W. von Schlegel denies this, and has investigated the matter in his Élémens de la Grammaire de la Langue Romane avant l'An 1000 (Paris, 1816). A further corruption of the Italian gave rise to the lingua Franca. (q. v.) ROMANO, GIULIO. (See Giulio Romano.)

ROMANTIC, in aesthetics, is used as contradistinguished to antique, or classic. (See these two articles.) Christianity turned men's thoughts from the external world, and the present condition of man, which had engrossed the attention of antiquity, to bis spiritual nature and future destiny; and all the works of imagination soon testified of the change. An unbounded world of imaginary beings, good and bad, beautiful and deformed, human, an.mal, angelic and demoniac, was created. The effect was increased by the mixture of the northern element with that of the south; for the northern mythology (q. v.) was full of supernatural, shadowy beings. A further consequence of Christianity was the giving of increased importance to the individual. The love and hatred, success and sufferings, of individual men assumed a more prominent place than had been allowed them in antiquity; the sense of personal dignity was heightened, and the longing for something better than the present world can afford, became more intense. These circumstances furnished the chief elements of romantic poetrythe poetry of the middle ages. The Greek lived in what is and was, the Christian in what is to come. So much is the spirit of romantic poetry connected with Christianity, that Jean Paul says, in his Vorschule zur Esthetik: "The origin and character of the whole modern poetry is so easily to be derived from Christianity, that the romantic might be called with equal propriety the Christian poetry." And so much is romantic poetry impressed with the longing for something beyond

the existing world, that Viennet, in his Epitre aux Muses sur les Romantiques (Paris, 1824), says :

C'est la mélancolie et la mysticité,

W

C'est l'affectation de la naiveté ; C'est un monde idéal qu'on voit dans les nuages: Tout, jusqu'au sentiment, n'y parle qu'en images. C'est un je ne sais quoi dont on est transporte; Et moins on le comprend, plus on est enchanté. Romantic poetry first grew up in the south of Europe, as its name would naturally lead us to suppose (see Romanic Languages), and was imbued with the spirit of chivalry, which also had its origin there. Hence the reason why love holds so prominent a place in romantic poetry. The reader will find some remarks applicable to this subject in the article Chivalry, where we have attempted to trace the causes of this singular institution. The age of chivalry has passed; the chivalrous spirit has taken a different direction (Humboldt, Parry, Caillié, are our knight-errants); but the causes which produced the romantic poetry are by no means all extinct; and the poetry of our time has much more resemblance to that of the middle ages than to the Greek. The same circumstances which gave its character to the poetry of the middle ages, had a corresponding influence on the fine arts in general, and music, painting and architecture were imbued with a peculiar spirit. The magnificent Gothic cathedrals which still remain, bear witness to the aspirations which Christianity awakened, and the solemnity which it inspired. The term romantic, therefore, is frequently applied to modern art in general, as contradistinguished to the antique classic or plastic. (q. v.)-See the article Middle Ages, also the excellent work of Bouterwek, History of Arts, Sciences, &c.; Jean Paul's Vorschule; an Essay on the Romantic Narrative Poetry of the Italians, in Panezzi's edition of Bojardo and Ariosto, vol. i. (London, 1830), and Storia ed Analisi degli antichi Romanzi di Cavalleria e dei Poemi Romanzeschi d'Italia con Dissertazioni sull' Origine, sugl' Instituti, sulle Ceremonie de' Cavalieri, sulle Corti d'Amore, &c., by Giulio Ferrario (Milan, 4 vols., 1828); the last of the four volumes is a Bibliografia dei Romanzi, &c. d'Italia. See, also, our articles on the Portuguese, Spanish, and French Literatures.

ROMANZOFF, Peter Alexandrowitsch, count, a Russian general and field-marshal, born about 1730, was descended from an illustrious family, and, having entered into the army when very young, his courage and abilities soon procured him pro

motion. He commanded at the taking of Colberg in 1761; and in the following year the death of Peter III prevented the invasion of Holstein, which he was about to undertake at the head of 40,000 inen. Catharine II made peace with the Danes, and, in 1769, employed Romanzoff against the Turks. He succeeded prince A. Galitzin, as commander-in-chief, in 1770, and obtained many advantages over the enemy in that and the following years, previously to the treaty into which he forced the grand vizier to enter, in his camp at Kainardgi, in July, 1774. He soon after set out for his government of the Ukraine. Romanzoff served against the Turks in the war which began in 1787. He died in December, 1796.

ROMANZOFF, Nich. (See Rumjanzoff.) ROMBERG, Bernard and Andrew; two distinguished German musicians, sons of two brothers, who were likewise known in their time. The former is the first violoncello player now living, and was born in 1770: the latter, chiefly known as a performer on the violin and a composer, was born in 1767, both in the territory of Munster. Both appeared as early as their seventh year in concerts. After many journeys and various appointments, they met in Paris, 1800, where they composed jointly for the theatre Feydeau the opera Don Mendoza. In 1801, Bernard was appointed professor of the violoncello in the Paris conservatory. In 1805, he received an appointment in the royal chapel at Berlin, which he subsequently resigned. He now lives in Berlin.-Andreae settled in Hamburg, and has produced many beautiful compositions, and in his instrumental pieces resembles Haydn. He died at Gotha, in 1821.

ROME (Roma), the eternal city, as it is often called, with which almost every thing great and memorable that has happened in Europe for 2500 years has been connected, and which, first with the sword, and afterwards with the more powerful arms of religious faith, ruled a large portion of the European world for centuries, and saw people of all climes bend before its majesty, is now only the shadow of its former greatness. Ancient Rome was situated nearly on the site of the modern city, in Latium, on several hills (whence the poetical appellation of the seven-hilled city), on both sides of the river Tiber, not far from the Mediterranean sea; but the principal part of the city lay upon the eastern side of the river. Here was situated the Pincian mount, and on the river lay the Campus Martius, the Cap

itoline hill, the Roman forum, and mount Aventine. The Quirinal, Palatine, and Colian hills, formed a second range eastward of the preceding, extending from north to south; the Viminal and Esquiline a third. On the other side of the Tiber lay the Vatican mount and Janiculura. This region was inhabited before the foundation of Rome. The city of Pallantium, built by some Greek colonists on the Capitoline mount, was perhaps still m existence when Romulus and Remus led a colony thither from Aiba Longa; so that this city was only extended, and Rome Proper was not entirely new. The new city probably derived its name, not from its founder (who was, perhaps, called Romulus from it), but from the river, which, as Servius informs us, was anciently called Rumon. The derivation, from the Greek þwμn (strength) is an absurdity, and of late origin. Two ditferent epochs are assigned for the foundation of Rome. According to Cate it was built 752, according to Varro, 754, years before Christ. The latter date is generally adopted. The founding of the city commenced with ceremonies borrow ed from the Etrurians. Romulus traced a square furrow round the Palatine hu with a plough drawn by two white cattle, and caused a wall of earth to be thrown up in the direction of the furrow. The interior was filled with huts.-The history of Rome is divided into three periods, in the first of which Rome was a kingdom, in the second a republic, and in the third an empire.-I. From the foundation of the city to the year 245, Rome was a monarchy. Romulus was chosen the first king of the new city. He adopted the Etrurian emblems of rovalty-twelve hetors (q. v.); but his power, and that of has successors, was so circumscribed, that Rome was, even then, in reality, a free state. A sort of municipal constitution was formed, probably after the model of that of the mother city. The principal points of this constitution are the creation and constitution of the senate; the ongin and permanent establishment of the patricians, or hereditary nobility; the division of the people into classes, and the date pent kinds of popular assemblies (comibia founded thereupon; the religious instinations; and, finally, the domestic relations of clientship, marriage, and particularly of the power of a father. Romulus, the leader of the colony (from A. U. 1 to 37 increased the number of the citizens by the establishment of an asylum, and by the incorporation of a part of the Sabines.

Numa Pompilius (39-82) founded the Roman state-religion; Tullus Hostilius (82-114) conquered Alba, and laid the foundation for the supremacy of Rome over Latium; Ancus Martius (114-138) built Ostium; Tarquinius Priscus (138176) carried on a war with the Etrurian confederacy; Servius Tullius (176-220), the ablest of the kings, placed Rome at the head of the Latin confederacy, and divided the nation, according to property, into six classes, upon which the comitia centuriata and the census were founded; the seventh and last king, Tarquin the Proud (220-245), aspired to absolute power, and was expelled on account of his tyranny. The constitution was then remodelled (509 B. C.). (See Romulus, Numa, and Tarquinius.) Even at this period, we can perceive in the Romans a manly, free, bold and ambitious people. Agriculture and war were their chief occupations. In private life, simplicity of manners and pleasures prevailed.-II. Rome as a republic, from 245 to 727 A. U.-First period. The royal power, with the same indefiniteness as it had been exercised by the kings, was committed to two consuls, chosen annually. At the commencement of the new government, Rome had to sustain a contest with the Etrurians and Latins for its freedom. The oppressions of the patricians, who arrogated the whole power to themselves, exasperated the plebeians, and produced, in the year 261, the establishment of tribunes of the people tribuni plebis), who were to protect their rights and liberties against the encroachments of the nobility. A protracted contest arose between the patricians and the guardians of the plebeians, the principal points of which were as follows:-(a.) The tribunes, in their accusation of Coriolanus, claimed the right of bringing individual patricians before the tribunal of the people, and thus gave rise to the comitia tributa, so fatal to the nobility; (b.) they demanded that the lands taken from the neighboring states should be distributed among the poorer people, and thus gave rise to the contests relative to the agrarian laws (leges agraria); (c) the tribune Publius Volero extended the prerogatives of the comitia tributa, and gave them the choice of the tribunes; (d.) the tribune Caius Terentius Arsa endeavored to circumscribe the consular power by the formation of a code of laws. (See Twelve Tables, and Appius Claudius.) Although the new laws defined the legal relations of all citizens, yet the government of the state remained in the hands of the aris

tocracy, which was kept totally distinct from the plebeians by the prohibition of intermarriage. This prohibition gave rise to new contests, which ended in its abolition. The plebeians likewise obtained, eighty years after, a participation in the honors of the consulship. During these disputes, the office of censor was established. Meanwhile, Rome was constantly engaged in petty wars and quarrels with the neighboring states. That the population might not diminish, freedmen, and even prisoners of war, were admitted into the number of citizens. Rome became altogether a military state; pay was introduced into the Roman armies, which rendered it necessary to impose higher taxes. The city was, at this time, reduced to the brink of destruction by the Senonian Gauls, who captured and reduced it to ashes (A. U. 365). Camillus (q. v.), however, the savior of Rome, restored it from its ruins. The first plebeian consul was elected in the year 388, and the plebeians soon participated in all offices in the dictatorship, in 398; in the censorship, in 403; in the pretorship, in 417; and in the priesthood, in 454 (300 B. C.). A complete political equality of patricians and plebeians existed at the end of this period; internal contests ceased, and, in the same proportion, the power of the state abroad increased, and the splendid period of conquests began. During this period, the manners of the Romans were characterized by the ancient simplicity and rudeness: science and the fine arts were as yet unknown to them; but useful arts, commerce (a treaty of commerce was concluded with the Carthaginians in 409), navigation, and mechanic arts, were culti vated. Agriculture was still the chief source of national wealth.-The first years of the second period were yet marked by contests between the plebeians and patricians. Rome was also visited by the plague, which gave rise to the introduction of theatrical shows from Etruria. The Romans now gained several victories over the Gauls, in which Titus Manlius Torquatus (see Manlius) rendered himself conspicuous. Two laws settled the rate of interest in favor of debtors. From an alliance which had been concluded a few years before with the Samnites (q. v.), a formidable war between the two nations broke out in 411, which lasted till 464, opened the way for the subjugation of all Italy, and laid the foundation of the future greatness of Rome. This war was the heroic age of the Romans; it taught them tactics; it settled their relations with their

neighbors, the Latins and Etrurians, the former being completely reduced, and the latter repeatedly humbled; and brought the Romans sometimes into friendly and sometimes into hostile contact with the distant Lucanians, Apulians and Umbrians. In this period, the principles of their policy towards conquered nations were also developed. After the subjugation of the Samnites, the Romans attempted to secure their authority in Lower Italy, in consequence of which the Tarentines called to their aid (A. U. 473) Pyrrhus (q. v.), king of Epirus, who, notwithstanding his knowledge of the Macedonian art of war, was finally worsted, and obliged (479) to evacuate Italy. Tarentum fell into the hands of the Romans in 482, and soon after all Lower Italy. The fame of Rome extended even to Egypt, the king of which, in 481, sent an embassy to seek for the friendship of the Romans. Authority was maintained among the conquered people chiefly by the establishment of colonies of Roman citizens, who served as garrisons in those cities in which they were placed. Each colony had its own constitution, similar to that of Rome. This colonial system gradually embraced all Italy. For convenience of communication, great military roads were laid out in different directions. Some of the Italian cities and people enjoyed all the rights of Roman citizens (municipia); others had the rights of colonies (jus coloniarum); the others were either allies (socii) or subjects (dedititi). The latter were governed by prefects sent from Rome. Rome had already a navy, and the office of duumviri navales was instituted for the general management of naval affairs. The judiciary was improved by the appointment of the pretors (q. v.), and the police by that of curule adiles and the triumviri capitales. Learning and the arts now began to appear. Fabius Pictor introduced the art of painting into Rome; Lucius Papirius Cursor brought (461) the first dial; and Spurius Carvilius caused a statue of Jupiter to be cast. With the worship of Esculapius the science of medicine came to Rome; the works of Appius, and the temple of Concord by Camillus, prove the progress of architecture. But by the side of noble specimens of morality, temperance, integrity and patriotism, individual examples of luxury, effeminacy and degeneracy already began to appear. In the third period, Rome made the first advances to the dominion of the world. She maintained, in three wars, a

desperate struggle with Carthage, and destroyed her rival. (See Carthage, Hannibal, Fabius, Scipio, Masinissa, &c.) The first war with Carthage was made for the possession of Sicily and the dominion of the sea; it lasted twenty-three years (from 489 to 511 of the building of the city), and ended with the expulsion of the Carthaginians from Sicily. Rome, made arrogant by success, then deprived them of the island of Sardinia, in the time of peace (517). She next humbled the piratical Illyrians, on the Adriatic sea, and thus appeared as the friend of Greece. Corcyra, Apollonia, and other Greek cities, put themselves under the protection of Rome; the Achæans, Etolians and Athenians emulated each other in expressions of gratitude. While Carthage endeavored to indemnify herself in Spain for her former losses, and was compelled by the Romans to promise not to pass the Iberus (Ebro), a bloody war broke out with the Cisalpine Gauls, which continued for six years, and resulted in the foundation of the Roman dominion in the north of Italy (about 222 B. C.). Then began the second Punic war. Hannibal commenced the attack, and made Italy the theatre of the war. It continued from 536 to 553. After many bloody battles, Carthage was subdued; but Rome, notwithstanding her great loss of men and the devastation of Italy, came out of the war more powerful than she had entered it, with an acquisition of foreign territory and the dominion of the sea. Without any change of the form of the constitution, the senate had now acquired an almost absolute power. The ambition of universal dominion already inspired the nation. At the end of the second Punic war, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and a part of Spain, and Cisalpine Gaul, were Roman provinces; Carthage was entirely dependent upon Rome. On the other hand, the kingdom of Macedonia in the East, with the Grecian republics, composed a political system, very complicated in itself, but first brought into connexion with Rome after the Illyrian war, and the connexion of Philip II with Hannibal. Of the three powers of the first rank,-Syria, Macedonia and Egypt, the two first were allied against the latter, which was on friendly terms with Rome. The powers of the second rauk-the Ætolian league, the kings of Pergamus, the republic of Rhodes, and other smaller states, such as Athens were already allies of Rome, and bad been leagued with her against Philip (543); the Achæan confederacy, on the