civil and military power were separated. After the death of Constantine, his three sons, Constantine, Constantius and Constans, divided the empire, until Constantius, in 1106, united the whole, after a war of twelve years' duration. He reigned first with the Cæsar Constantius Gallus, and afterwards with the Cæsar Julian, until 1114, maintaining constant wars with the barbarians. His successor was Julian (until 1116), an able and virtuous prince, called the Apostate, because he relapsed into heathenism. After him, Jovian reigned until 1117, Valentinian I, in the West, until 1128, Valens, in the East, until 1131, in whose reign the Huns entered Europe; Gratian and Valentinian II succeeded in the West; the former reigned until 1136, the latter until 1145, and Theodosius until 1147 in the East, and until 1148 over the whole empire. He divided the empire (395 A. D.), which henceforth remained separated, into the Eastern and Western Roman empires. (See the history of the former under the head Byzantine Empire, and of the latter under Western Empire.) To this period belong the following authors: Claudian the poet, Ammianus Marcellinus, Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, and Zosimus, historians. Symmachus was celebrated as a rhetorician, and Themistius as a sophist. Vegetius wr'e upon the science of war, and Macrobins was a successful follower of Varro and Gellius. Victor and Sextus Rufus wrote upon the topography of Rome. From this time the Roman language continually degenerated by the intermixture of barbarous words, and the corruption of taste, until at length it wholly disappeared in the Romanic languages, and all learning perished. For the earlier periods of Roman history, see Niebuhr's Roman history, Ferguson's History of the Roman Republic, Wacksmuth's Early History of Rome (in German, 1819). For the history of the empire, see the works of Tillemont, Crevier, Gibbon, and that of Hübler (3 vols., Freyburg, 1803).

Ancient Rome, although visited for a thousand years by various calamities, is still the most majestic of cities. The charm of beauty and dignity still lingers around the ruins of ancient, as well as the splendid structures of modern Rome, and brilliant recollections of every age are connected with the monuments which meet the passing traveller at every step. The characteristics of ancient and modern times are no where so distinctly contrasted as within the walls of Rome. Ancient Rome was built upon several hills, which are now scarcely discoverable, on account of the

vast quantities of rubbish with which the valleys are filled. (See the preceding historical sketch.) The eastern bank of the Tiber was so low as to subject the city to frequent inundations. The extent and population were very different at different times. We speak here of the most flourishing period. Vopiscus, in his life of Aurelian, relates that the circumference of the city, after its last enlargement by that emperor, was 50,000 paces, for which we must probably read 15,000, as Pliny estimates the circumference, just before the reign of Aurelian, at 13,000 paces, and the accounts of modern travellers agree with this statement. The inhabitants at that time may have amounted to about 3,000,000. The number of inhabitants enjoying the rights of citizenship was never more than 300,000. Romulus surrounded the city with a wall, or rather with an earthen mound. Of the four gates which he built-the Porta Carmentalis, the Pandana or the Saturnia, the Roman gate, and the Mugionia-the Carmentalis alone remains. The wall ran from mount Palatine, at the foot of mount Aventine, to the Tiber; one part of it then extended between the Tiber and the Capitoline_hill, and on the other side separated the Palatine from the Cœlian, Esquiline, Viminal, and Quirinal hills, and finally terminated at the capitol. The second, or the Servian wall, was much more extensive, and embraced all the above mentioned hills, on the southern and eastern sides; ran round under mount Aventine to the Tiber; thence passed to the west side of the river, where, being continued in the form of a triangle, as far as the summit of Janiculum, it separated this from the other hills; and then, proceeding to the southern end of the island of the Tiber in a direct course, embraced the whole body of the buildings beyond the river. On the north side of the city, the old walls of Romulus were mostly preserved; but the old wall terminated at the summit of Quirinalis, while the Servian extended to its easternmost extremity, and then ran round the other hills towards the east. The Pincian hill, Campus Martius, and the Vatican hill, therefore, lay entirely outside of it. The third, or Aurelian wall, likewise included all these parts. It ran from the northeastern extremity of Quirinalis, northwardly; embraced the Campus Martius, which it separated from the Pincian hill; extended beyond the latter to the river; enclosed, beyond the river, the Vatican, in a large bend; and then joined the old wall, which reached to the summit of Janiculum; so

brought by him from Ambracia; the temple of Honor and Virtue, in the first region, built by Marcus Marcellus, and ornamented by the Marcelli with the monuments of their family; the temple of Jupiter Stator, on the declivity of the Palatine bill, and vowed by Romulus on an occasion when his soldiers began to flee; the temple of Jupiter Tonans, built by Augustus with much splendor on the slope of the Capitoline hill; the beautiful temple of the Lycaouian hill, on the island of the Tiber, which thence received the name of Lycaonia; two temples of Isis and of Serapis; the temple of Juno Moneta, built upon the spot where the house of Manlius was torn down, on the fortifications of the Capitoline hill, because the awakening of the garrison on the attack of the Gauls, was attributed to this goddess; the temple of Liberty, built by Gracchus in the thirteenth region, and restored by Asinius Polho, who there established the first public library; the temple of Mars, on the east side of the Appian Way, before the Porta Capena, in the first region, in which the senate gave audience to generals who claimed the honor of a triumph, and likewise to foreign ambassadors (the church delle Palme stands upon its ruins); the temple of Mars Ultor, built by Augustus with great splendor, when he recovered the eagles of the legions that had been conquered by the Parthians; the splendid temple of Minerva, which Domitian built in the forum of Nerva ; another temple of the same goddess, which Pompey built in the Campus Martius, and which Augustus covered with bronze; the temple of Peace, once the richest and most beautiful temple in Rome, built by Vespasian, in the Via Sacra, in the fourth region, which contained the treasures of the temple of Jerusalem, a splendid library, and other curiosities, but was burnt under the reign of Commodus; the temple of the goddess Salus, which was painted by Fabius Pictor, the first Roman painter; the temple of Saturn, built by Tarquin the younger, which was afterwards used for the treasury and the archives of Rome; the temple of the Sun, which Aurelian erected at an enormous expense, and of which some ruins still exist; several temples of Venus, and among them, particularly, the magnificent temple of Venus Genitrix, which Casar caused to be built to her as the origin of his family, and the temple of Venus and Roma, of which Adrian himself designed the model; the temple of Vesta, one of the oldest and most remarkable, built by Numa on the southern summit of

the Palatine: in it were contained the ancilia, or sacred shields, and the palladium, sacred fire, &c. Of the palaces, the imperial was the most distinguished. It was built by Augustus upon the Palatine hill, and gave the name to the tenth region of the city. The front was on the Via Sacra, and before it were planted oaks. Within the palace lay the temple of Vesta, and also that of Apollo, which Augustus endeavored to make the chief temple in Rome. The succeeding emperors extended and beautified this palace. Nero burnt it, but rebuilt it, of such extent that it not only embraced all the Palatine hill, but also the plain between that and the Cœlian and Esquiline, and even a part of these hills, in its limits. He ornamented it so richly with precious stones, gold, silver, statues, paintings, and treasures of every description, that it justly received the name of domus aurea (golden house). The following emperors not only stripped it of its ornaments, but Vespasian and Titus caused some parts of it to be pulled down. Domitian afterwards restored the main building. In the reign of Commodus, a great part of it was burnt; but it was restored by him and his successors. In the time of Theodoric, it needed still further repairs; but this huge edifice subsequently became a ruin, and on its site now stand the Farnese palace and gardens, and the Villa Spada. Among the theatres, those of Pompey, Cornelius Balbus, and Marcellus, were the most celebrated. Pompey built that which bore his name, after his return from Greece, and adorned it with the most beautiful Grecian statues. An aqueduct brought water into every part of it. In order to protect it from destruction, he built within its precincts a splendid temple to Venus Victrix. It was capable of containing 40,000 persons. Caligula first finished it, but Tiberius had previously restored the scenes: Claudius, still later, did the same thing, and the Gothic king Theodoric caused it to be repaired. A few remains of it are yet to be distinguished near the palace Ursini. The theatre of Balbus, the favorite of Augustus, was situated in the Campus Martius. The theatre of Marcellus was built by Augustus in memory of his nephew Marcellus. accommodated 22,000 spectators, and was repaired by Vespasian. Some beautiful ruins of it are still to be seen. Among the amphitheatres, that of Titus was the most remarkable. (See Coliseum; and for the circus maximus and the circus of Caracalla, see Circus.) Among the remaining circuses, the following deserve to

It

be roestioned: the circus Agonalis, in the Tanch regro; the circus Aurelius, in the pardens of Heliogabalus, in the fifth the orous Farinius, in the ninth, one of the largest and most remarkable, upon the ruins of which the church of St Caterina de Funari and the palace Maffei now star1; the cirrus of Flora in the sixth region, upon the same spot which the Piazza Grimana now occupies, where the bcentions Floralia were celebrated; lastly, the circus of Nero, in the fourteenth region, near the modern church of St. Peter; and the circus of Sallust, the ruins of which are still visible near the Colline gate, Without stopping to describe the Naumachiæ q. v. we will proceed to the porticoes or colonnades. Among these are the Porticus Argonautarum, also called Porticus Neptuni, Agrippa, or Vipsanii, which Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa built in 729, and adorned with paintings, representing the history of the Argonauts: it was situated in the Campus Martius, surrounded by a laurel grove, and the marble pillars, still visible in the Piazza di Pietra, probably belonged to it: the splendid portico of Europa, in the Campus Martius, supposed to have been built by Augustus, and containing the history of Europa; the Porticus Hecatonstylon, in the ninth region, so called from its having 100 pillars; the portico of Livia, in the third region, built by Augustus, and demolished by Nero; the portico of Metellus, founded by Metellus Macedonicus, between the temple of Apollo, built by him; and that of Juno, in the ninth region, and ornamented with statues, brought by him from Macedonia; the Porticus Milliarensis, or of the thousand columns, the ruins of which are yet to be seen in the gardens of the duke of Muti; the portico of Octavia, built by Augustus; and the portico of Pola, built by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa; the portico of Pompey, called the Corinthian, from its pillars being of that order of architecture; Pompey built it near his theatre, and ornamented it with golden tapestry: final ly, the portico of the sun (Porticus Solis, which was built by Aurelian. Among the Basilica (q. v.), one of the most beautiful was the Æmilian, on the northerly side of the Forum Romanum, built by Paulus milius. We will also mention the Basilica Caii, or Lucii, on the Esquiline hill, the splendid Basilica Julia, on the southernside of the Forum Romanum, built by Julius Cæsar, and the Basilica Portia, which was the oldest, and was built by Cato the Censor. Of the public baths, some of which equalled in extent large palaces, and were

ornamented with still greater splendor,there have been enumerated about 22 warm, and 856 cold, besides 880 private baths. Mæcenas and Agrippa founded the first public baths, which were afterwards surpassed by those of Caracalla, and these, in their turn, by those of Dioclesian, vestiges of which remain till this day. Rome was likewise rich in magnificent gardens. The gardens of Lucullus, in the ninth region, hold the first rank; after these, the gardens of Asinius Pollio, Julius Caesar, Maecenas, Heliogabalus, &c. Of the triumphal arches, the most celebrated are, that of Constantine, the ruins of which are yet seen; that of Drusus, in the Appian Way, of which the modern gate of St. Sebastian is said to have been built; that of Gallienus, and those of Severus and Titus, which are yet in good preservation; the former in the Forum, and the latter in the Vicus Sandalarius. Among the columns, the most beautiful was Trajan's pillar, 118 feet in height, still standing. Instead of the statue of that emperor, which it formerly bore, Sixtus V placed upon it a statue of St. Peter, in bronze, twenty-thre feet in height. The bass-reliefs, with which it is ornamented, represent the exploits of Trajan, and contain about 2500 half and whole human figures. A flight of stairs, within the pillar, leads to its summit. The columna rostrata, which Duillius erected in commemoration of his victory over the Carthaginian fleet, and the pillars of Antoninus and Aurelian, are still standing. The sewers (cloaca)\, by means of which the filth and superfluous water of the city were conveyed into the Tiber, are among the most remarkable architectural works of ancient Rome; they are subterranean canals, of from ten to sixteen feet in height, and from twelve to fourteen in width, and, although constructed in the earliest ages of the city, are of such an indestructible solidity, that several earthquakes have bu: sightly injured them; and some parts of them are in perfect preservation. (Concerning the aqueducts of Rome, of which about twenty have been enumerated, se Aqueduct.) Among the magnificent sepulchral monuments, the mausoleum of Augustus and the Septizonium of Septimius Severus surpassed all others in splendor. This city was also rich in splendid private buildings, and in the treasures of art, with which not only the public places and streets, but likewise the residences and gardens of the principal citizens, were ornamented, and of which but comparatively few vestiges have survived the rav ages of time. See Burton's Antiquities of

Rome (Oxford, 1821); Nardini's Roma Antica (Nibby's edition, with annotations, plans, &c., Rome, 1820, 4 vols., 8vo.); Venuti's Descrizione topographica delle Antichità di Roma (3d edition, with Piali's notes, Rome, 1824, 2 vols. quarto, with 72 +ngravings).

Modern Rome; the capital of the States of the Church, the residence of the pope, and for centuries the capital of Christendom, at present the capital of the world of the arts (41° 53′ 45′′ N. lat.; 12° 28 E. lon). It is about thirteen miles in circuit, and is divided by the Tiber into two parts. The churches, palaces, villas, squares, streets, fountains, aqueducts, antiquities, ruins,-in short, every thing proclaims the ancient majesty and present greatness of the city. Among the churches, St. Peter's is the most conspicuus, and is, perhaps, the most beautiful building in the world. Bramante began t; Sangallo and Peruzzi succeeded him; but Michael Angelo, who erected its immense dome, which is 450 feet high to the top of the cross, designed the greatest part. Many other architects were afterwards employed upon it; Maderno finished the font and the two towers. The erection of this edifice, from 1506 to 1614, cost 45,000,000 Roman crowns. Before we arrive at this beautiful temple, the eye is attracted by the beautiful square in front of it, surrounded by a magnificent colonnade by Bernini, and ornamented by an Egyptian obelisk, together with two splendid fountains. Upon entering the Vestibule, Giotto's mosaic, la Navicella, is wen. Under the portico, opposite the great door, is Bernini's great bass-relief reprerating Christ commanding Peter to feed his sheep; and at the ends of the portico are the equestrian statues of Constantine by Bernini, and of Charlemagne by Cornachini. The union of these master works Jas an indescribable effect. The harmony and proportion which prevail in the intenor of this angust temple are such, that, immense as it is, the eye distinguishes all the parts without confusion or difficulty. When each object is minutely examined, we are astonished at its magnitude, so Huch more considerable than appears at first sight. The immense canopy of the high altar, supported by four bronze pilinrs of 120 feet in height, particularly attracts the attention. The dome is the boldest work of modern architecture. The ross thereon is 450 feet above the pavement. The lantern affords the most beautifal prospect of the city and the surroundng country. The splendid mosaics, tombs,

paintings, frescoes, works in marble, gilded bronze and stucco, the new sacristy, a beautiful piece of architecture, but not in unison with the rest, deserve separate consideration. The two most beautiful churches in Rome next to St. Peter's are the St. John's of the Lateran, and the Santa Maria Maggiore. The former, built by Constantine the Great, is the parochial church of the pope; it therefore takes precedence of all others, and is called Omnium urbis et orbis ecclesiarum mater et caput (the head and mother of all churches of the city and the world). In it is celebrated the coronation of the popes. It contains several pillars of granite, verde antico, and gilt bronze; the twelve apostles by Rusconi and Legros; and the beautiful chapel of Corsini, which is unequalled in its proportions, built by Alexander Galilei. The altar-piece is a mosaic from a painting of Guido, and the beautiful porphyry sarcophagus, which is under the statue of Clement XII, was found in the Pantheon, and is supposed to have contained the ashes of M. Agrippa. The nave of the church of Santa Maria Maggiore is supported by forty Ionic pillars of Grecian marble, which were taken from a temple of Juno Lucina: the ceiling was gilded with the first gold brought from Peru. We are here struck with admiration at the mosaics; the high altar, consisting of an antique porphyry sarcophagus; the chapel of Sixtus V, built from the designs of Fontana, and richly ornamented; the chapel of Paul V, adorned with marble and precious stones; the chapel of Sforza, by Michael Angelo; and the sepulchres of Guglielmo della Porta and Algardi. In the square before the front is a Corinthian column, which is considered a masterpiece of its kind. The largest church in Rome next to St. Peter's was the Basilica di San Paolo fuori delle Mura, on the road to Ostia, burnt a few years since. (See Paul, Churches of St.) The church of S. Lorenzo, without the city, possesses some rare monuments of antiquity. The church of San Pietro in Vincola contains the celebrated statue of Moses, by Michael Angelo. The church of St. Agnes, in the place Navona, begun by Rainaldi and completed by Borromini, is one of the most highly ornamented, particularly with modern sculpture. Here is the admirable relief of Algardi, representing St. Agnes deprived of her clothes, and covered only with her hair. The Basilica of St. Sebastian, before the Porta Capena, contains the statue of the dying saint, by Giorgetti, a pupil of Algardi, and the master of Ber