orders, but afterwards dismissed in disgrace. Under Alexander, he obtained the important post of governor of Moscow, and exercised an important influence over the campaign of 1812, even if the assertion of the French, that the burning of the city was his work, should be untrue. He himself decidedly denied this charge in his Vérité sur l'Incendie de Moscow (Paris, 1824). It is certain, however, that he caused his villa near Moscow to be burnt, and took measures for the destruction of the magazines in that city. Buturlin calls him the author of the conflagration, and the public voice in Russia coincides with this opinion. In 1814, he accompanied the emperor Alexander to the congress at Vienna. He afterwards travelled, and spent several years in Paris, where he became acquainted with some of the most distinguished families, and united his daughter in marriage to a grandson of the celebrated count Ségur (French ambassador to the court of Catharine II). He returned to Russia, and died in Moscow, at the commencement of the year 1826.

ROSTRA (incorrectly rostrum); a tribunal (suggestus) in the forum in Rome, whence the orators used to harangue the people, so called from the beaks (rostra) of the ships taken from the Antiates, with which it was adorned.

ROT, DRY. (See Dry Rot.)

ROTA or RUOTA ROMANA; the highest papal court of appeal, whose jurisdiction extends over all Catholic Christendom, and which decides not only spiritual controversies, but all questions concerning ecclesiastical benefices of a value above five hundred scudi; and the decisions thereof have the highest authority, derived from the doctrine of the pope's infallibility. The rota Romana has a collegiate constitution, and consists of twelve prelates, of whom three must be Romans, one a German, one a Frenchman, and one a Spaniard. They collectively bear the title of auditori della rota, or auditors of the holy apostolical palace, because their sessions are held semi-weekly in the palace of the pope. The name of this court is derived, perhaps, from the circumstance that the floor of their hall is overlaid with marble slabs in the form of wheels (rota): according to some, it is so named because, in ancient Rome, a round public building stood upon the place where this tribunal was first established. Other supreme courts, as, for example, at Genoa, have borne the same name. This court ceased with the papal government, but is now reestablished. (See Curia, Papal.)

ROTATION. The motion of the different parts of a solid body about an axis is called rotation, being thus distinguished from the progressive motion of a body about some distant point or centre; thus the diurnal motion of the earth is a motion of rotation, but its annual motion one of revolution.

ROTATION OF CROPS. Some sorts of crops exhaust the soils on which they grow, much less than others, as is the case with many of what are called green crops, when compared with the white or corn kind; so that it is highly advantageous to alternate them. Moreover, certain sorts of green crops are well suited, by the shade of their leaves and the kind of culture which they require while growing, for keeping the ground clean from weeds, and in a mellow and suitable state for the reception of the more valuable sorts of grain crops. All the culmiferous plants injure the ground in a high degree, which probably depends upon their having but few, and those small, leaves, so that they are obliged to draw their nourishment chiefly from the soil; also from their seeds ripening all at the same time, and the plants ceasing to grow when they begin to ripen, so that the roots cease to penetrate into the ground, and, of course, to move or loosen it. The green crops, and those of the root kind, being opposite to the white in each of the respects just mentioned, serve, generally speaking, when alternated with them, to counteract their injurious effects. The alternation of crops is a matter of vast importance in agriculture, and one in which great improvements have been made within the last century.

ROTH; German for red, and found in many geographical names, as Rothweil (red village).

ROTHSCHILD. This celebrated European house has raised itself from an humble sphere to an unexampled degree of wealth and importance by judicious enterprise, a sagacious and systematic series of operations, which thousands of others had the same opportunities to take advantage of, a reputation for fair dealing, and a correct estimate of men and events. The father of the five brothers now living, Mayer Anselm, was born at Frankfort on the Maine, in 1743, and died in 1812. His parents died when he was but eleven years old, and he was, as is common with poor Jews in Germany, educated for a teacher. This occupation not suiting his taste, Rothschild engaged in trading, in a small way, and was not long after employed in a banking house in Han

orders, but afterwards dismissed in disgrace. Under Alexander, he obtained the important post of governor of Moscow, and exercised an important influence over the campaign of 1812, even if the assertion of the French, that the burning of the city was his work, should be untrue. He himself decidedly denied this charge in his Vérité sur l'Incendie de Moscow (Paris, 1824). It is certain, however, that he caused his villa near Moscow to be burnt, and took measures for the destruction of the magazines in that city. Buturlin calls him the author of the conflagration, and the public voice in Russia coincides with this opinion. In 1814, he accompanied the emperor Alexander to the congress at Vienna. He afterwards travelled, and spent several years in Paris, where he became acquainted with some of the most distinguished families, and united his daughter in marriage to a grandson of the celebrated count Ségur (French ambassador to the court of Catharine II). He returned to Russia, and died in Moscow, at the commencement of the year 1826.

ROSTRA (incorrectly rostrum); a tribunal (suggestus) in the forum in Rome, whence the orators used to harangue the people, so called from the beaks (rostra) of the ships taken from the Antiates, with which it was adorned.

ROT, DRY. (See Dry Rot.)

ROTA or RUOTA ROMANA; the highest papal court of appeal, whose jurisdiction extends over all Catholic Christendom, and which decides not only spiritual controversies, but all questions concerning ecclesiastical benefices of a value above five hundred scudi; and the decisions thereof have the highest authority, derived from the doctrine of the pope's infallibility. The rota Romana has a collegiate constitution, and consists of twelve prelates, of whom three must be Romans, one a German, one a Frenchman, and one a Spaniard. They collectively bear the title of auditori della rota, or auditors of the holy apostolical palace, because their sessions are held semi-weekly in the palace of the pope. The name of this court is derived, perhaps, from the circumstance that the floor of their hall is overlaid with marble slabs in the form of wheels (rota): according to some, it is so named because, in ancient Rome, a round public building stood upon the place where this tribunal was first established. Other supreme courts, as, for example, at Genoa, have borne the same name. This court ceased with the papal government, but is now reestablished. (See Curia, Papal.)

ROTATION. The motion of the different parts of a solid body about an axis is called rotation, being thus distinguished from the progressive motion of a body about some distant point or centre; thus the diurnal motion of the earth is a motion of rotation, but its annual motion one of revolution.

ROTATION OF CROPS. Some sorts of crops exhaust the soils on which they grow, much less than others, as is the case with many of what are called green crops, when compared with the white or corn kind; so that it is highly advantageous to alternate them. Moreover, certain sorts of green crops are well suited, by the shade of their leaves and the kind of culture which they require while growing, for keeping the ground clean from weeds, and in a mellow and suitable state for the reception of the more valuable sorts of grain crops. All the culmiferous plants injure the ground in a high degree, which probably depends upon their having but few, and those small, leaves, so that they are obliged to draw their nourishment chiefly from the soil; also from their seeds ripening all at the same time, and the plants ceasing to grow when they begin to ripen, so that the roots cease to penetrate into the ground, and, of course, to move or loosen it. The green crops, and those of the root kind, being opposite to the white in each of the respects just mentioned, serve, generally speaking, when alternated with them, to counteract their injurious effects. The alternation of crops is a matter of vast importance in agriculture, and one in which great improvements have been made within the last century.

ROTH; German for red, and found in many geographical names, as Rothweil (red village).

ROTHSCHILD. This celebrated European house has raised itself from an humble sphere to an unexampled degree of wealth and importance by judicious enterprise, a sagacious and systematic series of operations, which thousands of others had the same opportunities to take advantage of, a reputation for fair dealing, and a correct estimate of men and events. The father of the five brothers now living, Mayer Anselm, was born at Frankfort on the Maine, in 1743, and died in 1812. His parents died when he was but eleven years old, and he was, as is common with poor Jews in Germany, educated for a teacher. This occupation not suiting his taste, Rothschild engaged in trading, in a small way, and was not long after employed in a banking house in Han

over; and in a few years his industry and frugality made him master of a small capital. Returning to Frankfort, he married, and established the banking house, which is still in existence. His activity, intelligence and integrity in a short time procured him a continually increasing credit, particularly after his nomination as agent to the landgrave of Hesse, in 1801. In 1802, 1803 and 1804, his affairs continued to prosper so much, that at this period he was able to contract for a Danish loan of four million dollars. The house now consists of his five sons; Anselm, born in 1773, the head of the house, resides at Frankfort; Solomon, born in 1774, resides alternately at Berlin and Vienna, principally at the latter place; Nathan, born in 1777, has lived in London since 1798; Charles, born in 1788, is at Naples; and James, born in 1792, at Paris. In 1813 occurred those political events which raised the house of Rothschild to the position it has since occupied in the commercial and financial concerns of the world. In a period of twelve years, about 500 million dollars were raised by the house for different powers, by way of lean or subsidy, which were distributed in nearly the following proportion: for England two hundred millions, for Austria fifty millions, for Prussia forty millions, for France eighty millions, for Naples fifty millions, for Russia twenty-five millions, for several German courts four millions, for Brazil twelve millions, exclusive of various other large sums. The remarkable success of the Rothschilds, setting aside the great opportunities which they have enjoyed from favorable circumstances, may be attributed to their strict adherence to two fundamental maxims. The first of these, in compliance with the dying injunctions of their father, is their conducting all their operations entirely in common. Every proposition of magnitude made to one of them is submitted to the deliberations of all; no project is adopted until thus fully discussed, and it is then executed by united efforts. A second prineiple is, not to aim at exorbitant profits, to set definite limits to every operation, and, so far as human prudence and oversight can do, to render it independent of accidental influences: in this maxim lies one of the main secrets of their strength. The reasonableness of their terms, the punctuality with which they execute their contracts, the simplicity and clearness of their plans, and their judicious manner of carrying them into effect, fortify their credit. A constant exchange of couriers s kept up between them, who are fre

quently in advance of those of the government. Several princes have publicly acknowledged their obligations by conferring nobility and other honors upon the different members of the family. In the latter part of 1831, the Rothschilds contracted for a loan of 15 million francs for the court of Rome, which may be increa ed to 25 millions.

ROTROU, Jean, a French tragic poet, born at Dreux, in 1609, was the most distinguished dramatic writer among the predecessors of Corneille. (q. v.). Of his thirty-six tragedies, tragi-comedies and comedies, only one-the tragedy of Veuceslas (as revised by Marmontel)-keeps the stage; the plot of this piece is horrowed from the Spanish of Roxas. Rotrou endeavored to elevate the tone of the drama by giving it a moral purpose, and his heroes and heroines are made to utter Christian sentiments. Richelieu, who granted him a pension, could not prevai upon him to assist in decrying the Cid of Corneille. In 1650, Rotrou fell a victim to a pestilential disease, to which he nobly exposed himself in the discharge of his official duties, as one of the principal magistrates of his native place. His Œuvres appeared at Paris in 1820, in 5 vols. (See France, Literature of, division Dramatic Poetry.)

ROTTECK, Charles von, a distingushed German historian, professor at the Catholic university of Freiburg, in Baden, was born in Freiburg, in 1775. In 179, he was appointed professor of universal hae tory. In 1818, he exchanged the char of history for that of natural law and pod itics. He is a member of the academy of sciences in Munich. Rotteck is distinguished from almost all other Gerinam historians, by the circumstance that his works, in addition to deep research and critical acuteness, display à civic spirit, if we may call it so. Though born country where civil liberty was so little understood in the time of his educatarsi, he has, nevertheless, learned to understand it, and to trace its developement in history. His chief work is his Universal History, the ninth volume of winch ars peared in 1826. The sixth edition probably published by this time, recommendation of this work, we wo mention that the subscription for abridgment of it was prohibited in Prussia in 1×31. His work on Standing Arripomis and a National Militia was translated res English and French, and Benjamun Constant translated his Ideas on Represereg tive Estates, Rotteck has been Likew amer active as a representative in the chart-r

of Baden. Besides his more extended works, he has written several important articles in periodicals and encyclopedias, and Manual of Natural Law and Polities. He would have found a noble field, had he been born in a country where the activities of men were unchecked by arbitrary institutions, or at a time of a warm struggle for freedom in his own country. ROTTEN BOROUGHS. (See Great Britain, division English Constitution, p. 610, and Parliamentary Reform, at the close of the last volume of this work.)

ROTTERDAM; a city of the Netherlands, province of South Holland, on the right bank of the Meuse, which is here above a mile in width, twenty miles from its mouth; lat. 51° 55′ N.; lon. 4° 28′ E.; twelve miles south-east of the Hague, thirty-three southwest of Amsterdam. Rotterdam is the second city in the Dutch provinces, for commerce and wealth, and contains 63,093 inhabitants. The form of Rotterdam is triangular, its longest side (above a mile and a half in extent) stretching along the bank of the Meuse. The town is surrounded by a moat, and entered by six gates towards the land, and four towards the water. It is traversed by the Rotte, a broad canal, which here joins the Meuse. Rotterdam is intersected, even more than other towns in Holland, by canals, which divide the half of the town, near the river, into several insulated spots, connected by drawbridges. These canals are almost all bordered with trees. The row called the Boomtjes is the finest in the city, as well in regard to buildings as for its pleasant prospect across the Meuse. Next to the Boomtjes comes the Haring-vliet. The other streets are, in general, long, but narrow. The houses of Rotterdam are rather convenient than elegant: their height is of four, five or six stories. Of the public buildings of Rotterdam, the principal are the exchange, finished in 1736, the great church of St. Lawrence, from the top of which there is a most extensive prospect. After these come several other churches, the whole number of which is fifteen, the town-house (an old edifice), the admiralty, the academy, the theatre, the extensive buildings of the East India company, a number of large ware-houses, and a few manufactories. Rotterdam has an active transit trade; the manufactures are not extensive; sugar refineries and distilleries furnish the chief articles of industry. There are several learned societies. It is the birth-place of the celebrated Erasmus. Rotterdam received the title and privileges of a city in 1270. Its commerce suffered

severely from the French revolution; and, in 1825, an inundation of the Meuse did great damage to the city. (See Netherlands.)

ROTUNDA (rotonda); every building round within and without, as the Pantheon, in Rome.

ROUBILLIAC, Louis Francis, a sculptor, was a native of Lyons, in France, who settled in England, in the reign of George I; and, in the absolute dearth of native talent which prevailed at that period, he long stood at the head of his profession. He executed a statue of Händel for Vauxhall gardens, and another of sir Isaac Newton, erected at Trinity college, Cam-` bridge; but was chiefly employed on sepulchral monuments. He wrote satires in his native language. He died, in London, in 1762.

ROUBLE; a Russian coin. (For the silver rouble, see Coin, division Russian ; for the paper rouble, see Assignation.) By the official valuation of the paper rouble, in the payment of taxes, a few years since, one silver rouble was equal to three roubles sixty copecks paper.

Roucou. (See Annotto.)

ROUÉ. This term is applied to a person, in the fashionable world, who is devoted to a life of pleasure and sensuality, and regardless of the restraints of moral principle. Philip, duke of Orleans, who, during the minority of Louis XV, was regent of France, and had a low opinion of men in general, and his friends in particular, applied the name of roués to his favorites and boon companions, to signify that they were fit to be broken on the wheel.

ROUEN (Rothomagus); a city of France, formerly capital of the province of Normandy, at present of the department of the Lower Seine, on the right bank of the river Seine, eighty-six miles north-west of Paris, forty-five south-east of Havre. The population, by the official enumeration of 1827, was 90,000: it is now estimated to exceed 100,000. Rouen is an archiepiscopal see, and the seat of various judicial and administrative authorities, and is one of the richest commercial cities of France. The Seine is crossed by a bridge of boats, which is paved, and rises and falls with the tide, and a new stone bridge, recently erected. The city is not prettily built, the streets being mostly narrow and dark, and the houses chiefly of wood. The quays along the river are handsome. The principal public buildings are the great cathedral, the church of the ancient abbey of St. Ouen,