forever. State sovereignty and secession finally disposed of, the theory of States rights as above outlined could be developed. The danger of extreme particularism had been avoided; extreme centralization during the exercise of war powers by the President and Congress was inevitable. The Supreme Court holds the balance, and its adjudication has, since the war, laid down the relations of the States and the national government as above.

Step-Father of His Country.-A nickname applied to Washington by venomous opponents during his presidency.

Stephens, Alexander H., was born in Wilkes (now Taliaferro) County, Georgia, February 11, 1812, and died at Atlanta, Georgia, March 4, 1883. He was a lawyer and a graduate of the University of Georgia. He served in the State Legislature and in Congress (from 1843 to 1859) as a Whig. When that party ceased to exist he became a Democrat, but opposed secession; when his State had actually seceded he joined it, however. He became Vice-President of the Confederacy. In 1877 he again went to Congress, leaving the House to become Governor of his State in 1882.

Stevens, Thaddeus, was born at Peacham, Vermont, April 4, 1792, and died at Washington, August 11, 1868. He was graduated at Dartmouth, and then practiced law in Pennsylvania. He served in the State Legislature, and was sent to Congress in 1849, where he served until 1853, and again from 1859 to 1868. He was originally a Whig, subsequently joining the Republicans. After the war he took a prominent part in Reconstruction. (See that title and Broad Seal War.)

Still Hunt. When a politician quietly works to secure support for himself without openly avowing his candidacy he is said to be engaged in a Still Hunt.

the

Straw Bail.-Bail is security given for the appearance of an offender when called for trial. This is usually in the form of a bond by a real-estate owner, bond to be forfeited on the non-appearance of the accused. When bail bonds are given by men who pretend to possess the necessary qualifications while in reality they do not, the bail is called Straw Bail.

Strict Construction. (See Construction of the Constitution.)

The

Strikers. In politics this term is applied to men that seek corruptly to influence legislation. (See Lobby.) Whether the striker has any real power to do this or not is immaterial; what is important to him is, that those desiring legislation influenced may think so, and intrust to him money intended for that purpose. term is also applied to legislators that introduce or support bills obnoxious to particular interests (usually to some corporation), for the purpose of being bought off by the interests thus threatened. This is a species of political blackmail.

Strong Government Whigs were the members of that faction of the American Whigs that favored the establishment of a strong central government. Opposed to them were the Particularists. Stuffing The Ballot-Box. ing.)

(See Ballot-Box Stuff

Stump. In the early days of this country political orators traveled from town to town, usually addressing crowds in the open air from the most convenient place, frequently the stump of a tree. From this arose the practice of calling a political harangue a stump-speech; the derivation of "stumping the State" and "stumpspeakers" is obvious.

Submission Men.-Those that opposed the War of 1812, and desired peace at any price, were called “submission men."

Subsidies, are direct pecuniary encouragement given by the government to private enterprises, especially for purposes of transportation. Our protective system of import duties is in the nature of an indirect bounty or subsidy to domestic manufacturers. (See Protection; Tariff Laws of the United States.) Railroads and steamship companies have usually been the recipients of direct aid from the government, but subsidies to railroads have generally taken the forms of land grants. For grants to railroads see Land Grants; Pacific Railroads. No grants have been made for the last fifteen years.

The reasons urged in support of these subsidies were that railroads were thus established much sooner than they otherwise could have been, and the country was developed, while the government lost nothing because the lands it retained were greatly enhanced in value. There is no doubt that much of our national development is due to our extensive railroads, and that this has been greatly encouraged by national aid; but, on the other hand, the dangers of railroad speculation followed, and the government interests were not sufficiently protected. In 1845, subsidies to steamship lines, in the form of payments for carrying the mails, were commenced, and a line was established from New York to Bremen, and subsequently to Havre and Bremen; the subsidy was $350,000 annually. In 1847 another act was passed, under which subsidies were paid to the Collins line to Liverpool, the George Law line to Aspinwall, and the Pacific Mail Steamship Company running from Panama to Oregon. In 1851 and 1852 the subsidies to the Pacific Mail and the Collins lines, respectively, were largely increased. In 1852 the total amount of subsidies for the foreign mail services was $1,946,686. About 1858 most of these subsidies were withdrawn. In 1864 a subsidy was authorized for mail service to Brazil, and in 1865 a contract for ten years was made with the United States and Brazil Steamship Company at $150,000 per annum. The same year saw a contract for monthly mail service to China with the Pacific Mail Company at an annual subsidy of $500,000. In 1872 an additional amount of $500,000 was offered to the same company for a semi-monthly service, but it was found impossible to construct the vessels as provided in the required time. Disclosures were made of corruption in obtaining the passage of the last act, public attention was forcibly directed to the matter, the Senate judiciary committee declared that the subsidy of 1872, had been forfeited by non-fulfillment of the contract on the part of the company, and the government consequently would not grant an extension of time. Both the Pacific and the Brazil subsidies ceased in 1875, and no others have been granted.

Subsidies to steamship companies have been advocated for the purposes of encouraging our carrying trade and commerce and to provide vessels that can be utilized in time of war for naval purposes. It is probable, however, that these results could be achieved more naturally in other ways and it is the general belief that corruption is apt to attend the granting of subsidies.

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Sub-Treasury System.-Under the Act of July 4, 1840, the United States for the first time assumed exclusive charge of its own funds. The Bank of the United States had failed to obtain a new charter, and the system of deposits in State banks (see Pet Banks; Specie Circular) had been a failure. At the special session of Congress, called to meet the emergency presented by the panic of 1837, a bill providing for a treasury system independent of the banks had been introduced by the Democrats, but had failed, owing to the fact that the conservative" Democrats joined the Whigs in opposing it. The "conservatives" had disappeared from the Congress that met in December, 1839, and during that session the bill became law through the aid of some of the Whigs who favored a sub-treasury system. The act provided for four receivers-general at New York, Boston, Charleston, and St. Louis, respectively; it made the mint at Fhiladelphia and its branch at New Orleans places of deposit; it provided for proper bonds for the honesty of the officials to secure the government, and ordered that after June 30, 1843, all payments to and from the government were to be in gold or silver. The success of the Whigs at the election of 1840 led to the repeal of the law, to take effect August 13, 1841. Between this date and August 6, 1846, the government funds were managed at the discretion of the Secretary of the Treasury, principally by deposit in State banks, security being taken by the government. The election of 1844 brought the Democrats back to power, and a new sub-treasury act, substantially the same as the first, became law in August, 1846. The system then established is still in force. The government acts as its own bank, keeping its funds in the vaults of the treasury and of the various sub-treasuries; in addition the govern

ment may deposit its funds with certain of the national banks designated as depositories, they giving security therefor in the shape of government bonds.

Sub-Treasury Whigs were those Whigs that, in the Twenty-sixth Congress, supported the establishment of an independent treasury. The Whig party was opposed to this measure. The sub-treasury Whigs held the balance of power in that Congress, and one of them, R. M. T. Hunter, of Virginia, was elected Speaker. The measure was, with their aid, carried by the Democrats. Succession, Presidential. (See Presidential Succession.)

Suffrage is the privilege of participating in the government of a State by voting at an election of officers or on a change in the fundamental law. Two theories regarding the suffrage have been advanced; one that it is a natural right, like liberty, the other that it is a privilege extended by the government, to be exercised under such restrictions or limitations as the latter may impose. This latter principle is the one on which the majority proceed in practice, even when professing the former. The thirteen original colonies all limited the suffrage to freeholders or to those that possessed property of a certain value, or to those that had paid taxes of a certain amount. After the Revolution, however, the States began gradually to remove these restrictions, New Hampshire leading the way in 1792; the present qualifications of voters in the States are given under Qualifications of Voters. The Constitution of the United States does not guarantee the suffrage to any citizens of the United States. This subject is under the jurisdiction of the States; the Constitution (Article 1, sections 2 and 3, and Article 2, section 1) provides for the election of Congressmen, Senators and President, and in every case is the qualifications of the voters left to the States. (See Qualifications of Voters.) The Fourteenth Amendment provides for the reduction of the representation of a State in Congress, in proportion to the number of citizens deprived of the suffrage, except for crime. This was intended to guard against the disfranchisement of the recently emancipated negroes,